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...muscles, which spinalis belong to, are the most powerful extensors of the spine.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> ...tebral]] spine and inserted into the bones of the upper thoracic vertebral spine.

...ticulations, measuring 2 × 4 to 3 × 6 mm., situated between the five lower cervical vertebral bodies. They are located anteromedially to the mixed nerve root a ...allow for flexion and extension and limit lateral flexion in the cervical spine.

...three synovial joints and constitutes the most mobile articulation of the spine<ref>Magee, D. Orthopedic Physical Assessment. Elsevier</ref>. &nbsp;The mi Between the articular processes of the two bones there is on either side an arthrodial or gliding joint.

Vertebra prominens is the name of the seventh cervical vertebra. ...rocess that protrudes posteriorly toward the [[skin]] at the back of the [[Cervical Anatomy|neck]].

...ch provide cushioning between the vertebrae and absorb pressure put on the spine. It is a nearly universal condition in those who reach advanced age, but it === Types of Spondylosis in spine ===

...vertebra) also known as epistropheus forms the pivot upon which the first cervical vertebra (the [[Atlas]]), which carries the head, rotates.<ref>Axis (anatom ...flattened where it articulates with the transverse ligament.<ref>Cervical Spine Anatomy: Overview, Gross Anatomy https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/194

...uscles, ligaments, and sometimes also the bones and nerves of the cervical spine. ...severe pain.<ref>Anderson C, Yeung E, Tong T, et al. A narrative review on cervical interventions in adults with chronic whiplashassociated disorder. BMJ Open

The Atlas (the first cervical vertebra - C1) differs from the other cervical vertebrae in that it has no body or spinous process. &nbsp;It is comprised [[Category:Cervical Spine - Anatomy]]

.../www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541001/#_NBK541001_pubdet_ Anatomy, Thorax, Cervical Rib].[updated 2020 Aug 22]. In:StatPearls[Internet].Treasure Island(FL): st .../www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780443067167000670 "Case 67 - Cervical ribs"], ''100 Challenging Spinal Pain Syndrome Cases (Second Edition)'', E

[[File:Cervical vertebrae lig flavum.png|right|frameless|492x492px]] ...with the tendons and muscles, provides a natural brace to help protect the spine from injury.

...an also result in [[Spinal Stenosis|spinal stenosis]], neurologic deficit, cervical spinal deformity and instability. Patients can be polysyndromic in their pr Image 1: [[X-Rays|X-ray]] showing fused cervical vertebrae as seen in Klippel–Feil syndrome

...skull- canine]]The Roof of the cranium is made up of frontal and parietal bones. ...s between the mandibular condyles and the mandibular fossa of the temporal bones

...tebrae.png|thumb|right]][[Image:Cervical vertebra.png|thumb|right]][[Image:Cervical Vertebra side view.png|thumb|right]] ...Clinical Center. http://www.umm.edu/programs/spine/health/guides/cervical-spine-anatomy. Accessed 21 april 2017.</ref><ref name="Gray">Gray H. Gray's Anato

# Palpate bones, joints, muscles, and surrounding tissue. <ref name=":3" /> ==== Lumbar Spine ====

...hey are mid to end-range facet [[Manual Techniques for the Cervicothoracic Spine|joint mobilizations]] that are applied Antero- cranially along the treatmen * NAGS are used to increase spinal movement in the cervical region and decrease the pain associated with it.<ref>Hussain, S. I., Ahmad,

...MC4836940/ Management of typical and atypical Hangman's fractures.] Global spine journal. 2016 May;6(03):248-56.</ref> ...nal weakened by the foramen transversarium on each side. There is no other cervical bony injury with a Hangman’s fracture.<ref name=":0">T.G. Williams. Hangm

...n the superior [[Cervical Anatomy|cervical]] spine and the inferior lumbar spine. It consists of 12 vertebrae that are distinct in shape and function from v ...tched on their superior and inferior surfaces, in the articulated thoracic spine, these notches form the intervertebral foramina for the passage of the thor

...ion (whilst paddling) increases the demands on the structures of the upper spine and associated soft tissues. ...nsion in the thoracic, increasing the demands of extension on the cervical spine.

...[[Cervical Radiculopathy|cervical radiculopathy]] or [[Cervical Myelopathy|cervical myelopathy]]. ...[[Cervical Spondylosis|spondylosis]] (degenerative changes in the cervical spine) but can also be the result of traumatic (fractures and instability) and in

...1;12(2):e053999.</ref>[[File:C-spine-picture.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Cervical spine]] [[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together.

...al orthopedic surgeons. Most common cause for this operation is a ruptured cervical intervertebral disk. Another reason for surgery are spurs that irritate a n ...locked nerve (=decompression) and the fusion is necessary to stabilize the cervical segment.

[[File:Cervical vertebra.png|right|frameless]] ...d to as [[Cervical Radiculopathy|radiculopathy]] and [[Cervical Myelopathy|cervical spinal myelopathy]] respectively.

[[File:Muscles of the cervical region multifidus superficial layer Primal.png|right|frameless]] ...ding of this anatomy is essential for assessment and treatment of cervical spine problems.

...e amount of force transferred from the ground and lower extremities to the spine and upper extremities.<ref name=":2" /> Until puberty, each hip [[bone]] consists of three separate bones yet to be fused: ilium, ischium and pubis connected by the tri-radiate cart

.../www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/ageing-muscles-bones-and-joints (last accessed 26.5.2019)</ref> ...to decline after about age 25. These declines can cause ligaments tendons bones and cartilage to become less flexible and more brittle over time.<ref>Schif

...pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16284634/ Swartz EE, Floyd RT, Cendoma M. Cervical spine functional anatomy and the biomechanics of injury due to compressive loadin ...3edsnp55rrgjct55%29%29/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2924481 Cervical spondylosis and neck pain Allan I. Binder British Medical Journal, 334, 759

...ition of the spine caused by degeneration of the joints between the spinal bones. ...ertebrae posteriorly and and help with twisting and turning motions of the spine. <ref name=":0">Brennan D. Facet arthrosis: What is it and what causes it?

This guide gives a general overview of the anatomy of the thoracic spine. It also includes some facts regarding pathophysiology in this region. The sagittal plane alignment of the Thoracic spine is on average 35% (normal range is 20° to 50°).<ref name=":2" />

...osis is an external aid that is used to correct and support the spine. The spine is a complex anatomical structure and is key to our function. It is not pos * Maintains alignment of spine

...ournals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0145561320946644 Dysphagia precipitated by cervical lordosis in the aged]. Ear Nose Throat J. 2020:145561320946644.</ref> ...influenced by the thickness of osteophytes, cervical mobility, and cranio-cervical alignment<ref>Nishimura H, Endo K, Aihara T, Murata K, Suzuki H, Matsuoka Y

*Two innominate bones and the [[sacrum]] to which coccyx is attached. ...is at the level of the sacral promontory and superior aspect of the pubic bones.

== Bones of the Canine Front Limb == The bones of the front limb are:

...as the ilium and [[scapula]]<ref name="Goodman" />, and rarely affect the spine<ref name="moon" />. It is believed that these non-malignant tumors arise fr ...proximal tibia, but can also occur in flat bones, and less commonly in the spine. Patients can be asymptomatic, where medical management mostly consist of r

This page introduces the Anatomy of Equine Spine and Head. ...pairs of ribs, out of a total of 18.<ref name=":1">Van der Walt A. Equine Spine and Head Presentation. Plus , 2021.</ref>

...mor that most commonly develops in the spine, sacrum, long bones, and flat bones. Benign tumors do not spread to various sites or organs. However, an aggres *Scoliosis of the spine<ref name="p1" /><ref name="p2" /><ref name="p3" />

...dominantly affect the musculoskeletal system, which comprises the muscles, bones, joints, and related tissues like ligaments and tendons. Here is a concise ...id, and ethmoid bones. In addition to these, the head also contains facial bones, teeth, eyes, ears, and the nose.

'''The SC joint is formed by the articulation of three bones'''<ref name=":3" />''':''' Cervical Nerves C3-C4&nbsp;

...pril 2001. (LoE:4)</ref> While no tools exists for the assessment of upper cervical ligamentous instability, an approach that takes into account risk factors, ...tube.com/watch?v=k6hUT1kBoEc&feature=youtu.be|width}}<ref>Dpt Orthopeadics Cervical Instability Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6hUT1kBoEc&fea

...discs act like shock absorbers throughout the spinal column to cushion the bones as the body moves. [[Ligament|Ligaments]] hold the vertebrae in place, and [[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together.

[[File:SPINE ANATOMY.jpg|thumb]] ...t can no longer support the weight of the body through that segment of the spine.

...is. <ref name=":1">Binder AI. [https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39127.608299.80 Cervical spondylosis and neck pain.] BMJ. 2007 Mar 8;334(7592):527-31.</ref> Common ...neck pain in Australian office workers: a 1-year longitudinal study.] Eur Spine J. 2009 Oct;18(10):1532-40.</ref>

...[Lymphatic System|lymphatic system]], [[Brachial Plexus|brachial plexus]], spine, second and third [[ribs]], stellate [[ganglion]], and the [[Sympathetic Ne ...ocated at the bottom of the cervical spine in connection with the thoracic spine and is related to the sympathetic nervous system. Invasion of this may resu

...and spine are aligned in a neutral position, this reduces the pressure on bones and ligaments. Sleeping on the back can relieve allergies or stuffy nasal c ...on provides the least support to the back and puts greater pressure on the spine, which could lead to pain. It delays recovery for patients who have a histo

...tic AAI. <ref name=":0" /> Symptomatic AAI occurs as a result of excessive cervical movement causing impingement on the spinal cord, with a risk of severe neur [[File:Cervical Vertebrae.jpg|thumb|350x350px|Cervical Vertebrae C1-C7 <ref>'The Vertebral Column'. ''Lumen Learning.'' [online].

...essive degenerative changes that affect all the components of the cervical spine (i.e., intervertebral discs, facet joints, joints of Luschka, ligamenta fla ....nih.gov/pubmed/25674751 Tetraplegia after thyroidectomy in a patient with cervical spondylosis: a case report and literature review.] Medicine (Baltimore) 2

...y collapses. When this occurs in the paediatric population and because the bones are still developing, this may have severe consequences. A vertebral fractu === Cervical spine ===

...ation and eye movements. This page discusses these muscles, as well as the bones, ligaments, and nerve and blood supply for the head and jaw. [[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together.

The spine is wonderfully designed to allow movement. It is also designed to help abso ...in the thoracic region which is your upper back; 5 vertebrae in the lumbar spine; and 5 sacral vertebrae and 4 coccyx which are located below that.

....</ref> According to research, one-fifth of all people experience thoracic spine pain in their lifetime.<ref name=":0" /> A good understanding of the anatom [[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together.

Tetraplegia is a paralysis caused by an injury of the cervical spinal cord. This can result in a partial or total sensory and motor loss o ...or torn (e.g. due to extreme tension caused by an extreme movement of the spine causing trauma of multiple tissues). In case it is torn, it will likely hav

...lated pain:<ref name=":0">Van der Walt A. Managing Disorders of the Canine Spine Course. Plus , 2021.</ref> * Severe cervical pain is one of the few conditions that will cause “screaming or crying”

The [[Thoracic Anatomy|Thoracic Spine]] has a complex and often overlooked role within the body. It is a key area * Should be assessed and treated as a functional unit including not only the spine but the [[Ribs|rib]] cage.

Scoliosis is an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. It is most often diagnosed in childhood or early adolescence. The spine's normal curves occur at the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions in the so-called “sagittal” plane. These n

...elbow joint is where the distal humerus meets the proximal radius and ulna bones. It is known as a trochleogingylomoid joint as it can flex and extend as a === Shoulder, Cervical Spine and Thoracic Spine ===

...ft tissues where adjacent spinous processes in the [[Lumbar Anatomy|lumbar spine]] rub against each other.<ref name=":4">Radiopedia. Basstrup Syndrome. Avai ...Baastrup's disease as a cause of neurogenic claudication: a case report]. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003 Jul 15;28(14):E273-5.</ref>

...e [[Facet Joints|facet joints]] (also termed zygapophyseal joints) of the spine become a source of [[Pain Behaviours|pain]]. * 55% of facet syndrome cases occur in [[Cervical Vertebrae|cervical vertebrae]], and 31% in [[Lumbar Vertebrae|lumbar]].<ref name="p4">Varlotta

...lis, MD. Achondroplasia and cervical laminoplasty Case report. J Neurosurg Spine 2009; 11:417-420. http://thejns.org/doi/pdf/10.3171/2009.4.SPINE09164 (acce *Spine curvatures called kyphosis and lordosis."<ref name="pubmed" />

...ts the muscle and tendons, as they are in close contact to the surrounding bones. **Age / sex / co-morbididies (diabetes / smoking / prior shoulder pain / cervical pain)

...that act like shock absorbers throughout the spinal column to cushion the bones as the body moves. Ligaments hold the vertebrae in place, and tendons attac ...vical Anatomy|cervical]], thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions. The lumbar spine consists of 5 moveable vertebrae (numbered L1-L5). The lumbar vertebrae, as

...an be difficult to fit their saddles as they tend to ”run out” of thoracic spine. ...on on the lateral collateral ligament and the medial surface of the carpal bones

...g friction. Klenck and Gebke (2007) also states that cervical and thoracic spine injuries are common with athletes with upper extremity amputations due to a ...e of C2, hypoplastic posterior arch of C1, and fusions contribute to upper cervical instabilities.<ref name="Tassone" /> These instabilities can lead to seriou

...ment system impairment syndromes of the extremities, cervical and thoracic spine St.Louis, MO (USA): Elsevier Mosby; 2011:p.439-482</ref> [[Weight bearing|W ...y of navicular bone, all cuneiform bones, cuboid bone, bases of metatarsal bones 2-4

...joints typically consist of three or more bones, but the TMJ only has two bones. Instead of a third bone, an articular disc sits between the mandibular fos * Changes in the cervical spine associated with cervical muscle spasm

...his abnormal loading, frequently leads to joint deformities, mainly in the spine and lower limbs<ref>Tosi LL, Maher N, Moore DW, Goldstein M, Aisen ML. Adul *[[Cervical Stenosis|Cervical stenosis]]

[[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together. '''The shoulder complex has four bones: the clavicle, sternum, scapula and proximal end of the humerus.'''<ref>Lev

...ow-motion lifestyle, the load-bearing capacity of the muscles, tendons and bones, as well as all other involved tissues, decreases. When seated, the risk of

* In [[Bone|bones]] and limbs it can cause weakness, [[Leg Length Discrepancy|limb-length dis ...ths after treatment and are not as common. &nbsp;Radiation to the cervical spine may result in subacute [[myelopathy]] (Lhermitte's sign). &nbsp;Radiation t

The [[Shoulder|shoulder joint]] is made up of three bones: the [[humerus]], [[scapula]] and clavicle. The head of the humerus and the * [[Cervical Radiculopathy|Cervical radiculopathy]]

...n Whiplash-Associated Disorders: redefining" whiplash" and its management. Spine. 1995;20:1S-73S.</ref><ref name=":19" /> The prognosis of WAD is unknown a ...utube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgMdL7vEga8|width}}<ref>3D4Medical - Cervical Whiplash | Trauma. Available from:https://youtu.be/jgMdL7vEga8 (last acce

Inflammation can occur in the spine, sacroiliac and peripheral joints as well near the attachments of tendons a ...[[Facet Joints|facet joints]], endplates, bone marrow, … every part of the spine can be affected by an inflammation.&nbsp;<ref name="p4">Walter P. Maksymowy

* buffalo hump (truncal obesity with prominent supraclavicular and dorsal cervical fat pads) <ref name="Merck">Beers MH, Porter RS, Jones TV, Kaplan JL, Berkw * decreased bone density (especially spine),

* Activity in the posterior cervical postural chains is initiated<ref name=":1" /> ...Effects of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) plus upper cervical spine mobilization on forward head posture and swallowing function in stroke pati

...tebrae|thoracic spine]] [[Fracture|fractures]] occur in the lower thoracic spine, with 60% to 70% of thoraco-lumbar fractures occurring in the T11 to L2 reg ...ury. 2009 Feb 1;40(2):166-72.</ref> Minor trauma can also cause a thoracic spine fracture in individuals who have a condition associated with loss of bone m

...my of the female pelvis shows five [[Bone|bones]]: two [[Hip Anatomy|hip]] bones, [[sacrum]], coccyx, and two [[femur]]<nowiki/>s. The joints are supported * The overall equilibrium of the spine and pelvis alters as the pregnancy progresses<ref>Inanir A, Cakmak B, Hisim

...0 Feb;50(1):55-68.</ref> The foot structure is complex, consisting of many bones, joints, ligaments and muscles. The foot is divided into three parts: rearf [[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together.

...CT scanning]] is essential for diagnosis as this shows fractures of facial bones more reliably than plain [[X-Rays|X-ray]], and also shows soft tissue injur ...(3):209-14.</ref>, and some have co-existing [[Spinal Cord Injury|cervical spine injury]]<ref name=":0" />[[Spinal Cord Injury|.]]

* Strengthens [[Bone Density|bones]] and [[Muscle Strength Testing|muscles]] ...ond contraction for 10 repetitions with 10 second hold in between, and (2) cervical flexion endurance exercise of head lift in supine for 3 sets of 10 repetiti

...ing the second most likely to be affected. The higher levels of the lumbar spine are rarely affected. (15 LOE: 4) ...a blanket term used by physicians to describe general deterioration of the spine. This defect can be asymptomatic or associated with significant back pain (

Sternum pain is usually caused by problems with the muscles and bones near the sternum and not the sternum itself. | The ribs are affected by stress fractures less frequently than bones in the lower extremities.<ref name=":8">Connolly LP, Connolly SA. Rib stres

...A2.jpg|thumb|right|300px]]The elbow joint is a synovial hinge joint. Three bones are involved in the articulation of the joint: the distal end of the humeru *Referred pain from cervical spine

* Palpable tuber on the scapular spine Carpal bones:<ref name=":1" />

'''Bones''' * [[Cervical Spondylosis]]

Muscles connect to bones or joint capsules by connective tissue structures, such as [[Tendon Anatomy ...n OA, Schuit D, Havey RM, Voronov LI, Ghanayem AJ, Patwardhan AG. Cervical spine muscle-tendon unit length differences between neutral and forward head post

The CNS is enclosed within the [[Bones of the skull|skull]] and vertebral column. These structures are separated b ...not directly attached to the vertebrae, there is an epidural space in the spine. In the cranial dura mater, there are a few places where the meningeal lay

maxilla, and palatine bones |Inferior mental spine: the posterior surface of the mandible near the lower part of the mandibula

[[Ligament]]: fibrous connective tissue that holds the bones together. The ankle joint includes three bones: the talus, tibia and fibula. The ankle joint has three borders: the latera

...ior vertebral defect only without a meningeal sac; location: lumbar-sacral spine; usually asymptomatic but can be associated with occult spinal dysraphism; ...into a meningeal sac; location: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and/or sacral spine; motor deficits are less likely than with myelomeningocele; structural brai

...levates the shoulder. Scapular landmarks for palpation are the base of the spine and the inferior angle. ...ulder elevation limits relative (arthrokinematic) movement between the two bones.<ref>Crosbie J, Kilbreath SL, Hollmann L, York S. [https://scholar.google.c

The distal humerus meets the proximal radius and ulna bones to form the elbow joint. It is known as a trochleogingylomoid joint as it c ...radiculopathy focus on characteristics and differential diagnosis]. Asian Spine Journal. 2020 Dec;14(6):921.</ref>

...bones: the [[humerus]] (upper arm bone), the [[radius]] and [[ulna]] (two bones in the forearm). At the distal end of the humerus there are two epicondyles ...is >50, consider osteoarthritis ([[Osteoarthritis|OA]]), referred cervical spine pain. In a study by Nirschl, <ref name=":21">Nirschl R. Tennis elbow. Ortho

...itis. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2021 Jul 3;23(8):61. </ref> hip, knee, ankle and spine<ref name=":2" /> ...e are gender differences in osteoarthritis across all joints (the cervical spine is one potential exception)<ref name=":0" /> with females more likely to de

...eased flexion of the hips, and a compensatory hyper lordosis in the lumbar spine<ref>Physiopedia contributors. (2022) ''Lower Crossed Syndrome''. Physiopedi ...rates thin out and lose their cushioning. Moreover, as the spine and other bones change their position due to the long-term consequence of poor posture, the

...ial for the normal growth of children but also for the preservation of the bones. Vitamin D is also important for other functions such as muscle tone, immun ...at Down syndrome was associated with low Bone mineral density (BMD) of the spine. Lack of physical exercise, low muscle strength, insufficient exposure to t

...Phys Ther. 2022 Dec;52(12):CPG1-CPG111. </ref> Many structures, including bones, tendons, ligaments, bursae, and nerves, can cause elbow pain.<ref>Chung HJ ...ptoms are coming from the [[Overview of Cervical Spine Assessment|cervical spine]].

...="Micheli and Wood 1995">El-Sayed A, Cervoni-Rosario B, Harrast MA. Lumbar spine. In: Krabak BJ, Brooks A, editors. The Youth Athlete. Elsevier; 2023. p. 35 * Spine tumors.

[[File:LSS1.jpg|right|<ref>Bhave A. Modern Techniques in Spine Surgery. JP Medical Ltd; 2014 Nov 30.</ref>]] ...agnosis and treatment of degenerative lumbar spinal stenosis (update). The Spine Journal. 2013 Jul 1;13(7):734-43.</ref>

** Gives information on bones, joints, ligaments, tendons and joint capsule insertions ** Machine size limits scans to mid-radius and tibia and upper mid-cervical, spine and head

...Foot and Ankle|foot and ankle]] form a complex system which consists of 26 bones, 33 joints and more than 100 muscles, tendons and ligaments. It functions a ...s. However, a kinematic chain extends from the cervical and upper thoracic spine to the fingertips. Only when certain multiple segments are completely fixed

...nd glenohumeral ligaments reinforcing the capsule. Other important [[Bone|bones]] in the shoulder include: ...on the scapula so that the fingers and thumb secure the [[scapula]] at the spine of the scapula and the coracoid. The patient’s arm is pulled anteriorly t

* Female reproductive organs: cervical canal obstructed by thickened mucus ** [[Thoracic Hyperkyphosis|Kyphosis]] of the spine resulting in neck and back pain&nbsp;

...age, exercises that help to maintain mobility of the cervical and thoracic spine, as well as isometric exercises in standing can be introduced. Active movem Once fractures of the metacarpal, phalanges or sesamoid bones are excluded, these injuries are mostly managed conservatively (see above r