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Neural Entrainment

Original Editor - Malisha van der Berg

Top Contributors - Malisha van der Berg, Vidya Acharya and Alexandra Stead  

Introduction

Humans have a natural tendency to synchronise movement with rhythmic signals in the environment, which is observable in music, dance, sport, and conversation.[1] Neural entrainment/brainwave entrainment is the mechanism proposed to explain this.

Neural entrainment is the process by which endogenous neural oscillations synchronise with external rhythmic stimuli, aligning neuronal activity with a periodic sensory input.[1][2] More broadly, entrainment refers to the coupling of two oscillatory systems such that one is influenced by the other, resulting in synchronisation of frequency or phase.[3] This is observable across physical systems (pendulum clocks), biological systems (circadian rhythms), and human behaviour, from motor coordination with auditory cues to interpersonal speech synchrony.[2][3]

In rehabilitation, rhythmic auditory, visual, tactile, or electrical stimulation can influence the timing of neural activity, facilitating movement, cognition, and sensorimotor integration.[3][4] Physiotherapists can therefore utilise entrainment modalities to improve gait, manage pain, support breathing, enhance exercise performance, and promote motor learning.

Physiological and Psychological Basis for Entrainment

Neural Oscillations

Brain oscillations, commonly referred to as brainwaves, are rhythmic electrical activities produced by interacting neurons that coordinate communication between distributed brain regions.[5] These oscillations decompose into distinct frequency bands, each associated with different brain states and functions:[5][6]

  • Delta (0.5–4 Hz): deep sleep and slow recovery processes
  • Theta (4–8 Hz): memory, navigation, and early motor learning
  • Alpha (8–13 Hz): relaxed wakefulness and attentional gating
  • Beta (13–30 Hz): active movement, motor anticipation, and sensorimotor coupling
  • Gamma (30–100 Hz): cognitive processing, attention, and sensory perception

Oscillatory activity is regulated by neurotransmitter systems:

  • Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) influences oscillatory frequency.[5]
  • Norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and serotonin modulate alpha, beta, and delta rhythms.[5]
  • Dopamine contributes to rhythm perception, motor timing, and reward prediction, and is released during music listening, enhancing motivation alongside motor performance.[7]

Disorders that disrupt neurotransmission, such as Parkinson's disease, consequently impair normal oscillatory timing.[6]

When neural oscillations align with an external rhythm, neuronal communication is facilitated.[8] Rhythmic auditory, visual, or tactile cues therefore act as temporal scaffolds that synchronise neural activity, improving movement timing, attention, and motor learning.[6]

The Sensorimotor Network

Neural entrainment recruits a distributed sensorimotor network linking sensory processing with movement planning and execution. Key structures include:

  1. Supplementary motor area (SMA): The primary interface between rhythm perception and motor output. The SMA dynamically tracks the phase of rhythmic stimuli, enabling movement preparation to begin before the next beat; this is the anticipatory mechanism underlying effective rhythmic cueing.[9]
  2. Basal ganglia: Regulate interval timing and internally generated rhythmic movements.[10] Dysfunction in Parkinson's disease (PD) disrupts this internal timing, which external rhythmic stimulation can compensate.[7]
  3. Cerebellum: Supports error-based timing by comparing predicted and actual movement timing and making corrective adjustments. Essential for adapting to tempo changes and external perturbations.[11]
  4. Premotor cortex: Transforms rhythmic sensory input into motor plans, linking sensory information with movement execution.[12]

The auditory system has direct projections to motor areas, making auditory rhythms the most effective modality for motor entrainment, activating motor networks even below conscious awareness.[7] Visual, tactile, and proprioceptive systems engage the same downstream motor network but generally provide lower temporal precision.[13][14]

Beta-Band Oscillations and Neuroplasticity

Among oscillatory frequencies, beta-band oscillations (13–30 Hz) are particularly important for movement, underpinning sensorimotor integration, movement anticipation, and rhythmic coordination.[15] In PD, rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) during treadmill training has been shown to enhance fronto-centroparietal beta-band connectivity compared with treadmill training alone,[16] suggesting that rhythmic cueing not only improves motor performance but also strengthens functional connectivity within motor networks.[7]

Repeated entrainment promotes neuroplasticity through activity-dependent synaptic strengthening.[5] Consistent temporal coupling between sensory input and motor output enhances connectivity within sensorimotor networks, supporting motor relearning and functional recovery following stroke and other neurological conditions.[17]

Importantly, active movement produces substantially stronger neural entrainment than passive listening, as motor engagement is necessary for robust neural responses to rhythmic perturbations.[6]

Psychological Basis

The effectiveness of neural entrainment extends beyond motor physiology to include several psychological processes that influence rehabilitation outcomes.

  • Attention and prediction: Rhythmic stimulation entrains attention by aligning neural activity with anticipated sensory events.[2] Neural oscillations remain phase-locked even after external stimulation ceases, supporting temporal prediction and proactive motor planning. External rhythms therefore reduce reliance on impaired internal timing mechanisms.[7]
  • Motivation and perceived effort: Music activates dopaminergic reward pathways, increasing motivation, improving exercise adherence, and reducing perceived exertion.[18] These effects support greater training volume and long-term participation in rehabilitation.
  • Pain modulation: Neural entrainment may influence pain perception by modulating oscillatory activity within cortical pain networks. Systematic reviews suggest that sensory entrainment, including binaural beats and transcranial alternating current stimulation, can reduce pain intensity in some populations, although evidence remains heterogeneous.[19][20]
  • Interpersonal synchrony: Group rhythm-based activities promote synchrony, increasing motivation, social cohesion, pain tolerance, and collective motor performance through shared attention and endorphin-mediated mechanisms.[6] Group interventions may therefore offer benefits beyond equivalent individual therapy.

Modalities of Neural Entrainment

Several forms of neural entrainment are currently used or investigated in rehabilitation. The following are more relevant to physiotherapy practice.

Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS)

RAS is the most established modality. External auditory cues, such as metronomes or rhythmically structured cords, synchronise stepping patterns through auditory-motor coupling, improving gait speed, cadence, stride length, and walking symmetry.[7][21][22]

See page on Auditory Rhythmic Stimulation for Gait Training for additional information on RAS.

Music-Based Interventions

Rhythmic music therapy (RMT) combine rhythmic cueing with emotional and motivational engagement. Compared with simple metronomes, music often improves patient enjoyment and adherence while producing similar or greater improvements in motor performance.[16][23]

The following video is on Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT), first presentation is on active music therapy (AMT) with those following RMT and RAS.

[24]

Binaural Beats and Rhythmic Photic Stimulation

Binaural beats and rhythmic photic stimulation aim to influence cortical oscillations associated with cognition, anxiety, mood, and pain. Although early findings are promising, clinical evidence remains less robust than for motor entrainment.[25] [26]

Visual Entrainment

Flashing lights, moving visual targets, or virtual reality (VR) environments are used to synchronise movement with external visual rhythms.[13] Visual cueing is particularly useful for patients with freezing of gait (FOG) or impaired movement initiation.[27][28]

Vibrotactile Stimulation

Vibrotactile stimulation delivers rhythmic mechanical cues through wearable devices placed on the limbs or trunk. Vibrotactile cueing improves gait timing, balance, and movement synchronisation, particularly in individuals who have auditory impairments or experience sensory overload.[29][30][31]

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS)

tACS applies weak oscillating electrical currents across the scalp to entrain cortical activity directly. Experimental studies suggest that tACS may enhance motor learning, post-stroke recovery, cognitive performance, and pain modulation, although optimal stimulation parameters continue to be investigated.[17][32][33]

Emerging Technologies

Emerging entrainment modalities include wearable closed-loop cueing systems that adapt stimulation in real time according to patient performance.[34][35]

The following video shows "InTandem" an example of emerging technologies used.


It is important to note that modalities differ in temporal precision, attentional demand, and clinical suitability.[14]

The table below summarises how each modality supports entrainment and where it is most useful in physiotherapy practice.

Modality Mechanism Clinical Use
Auditory (RAS +RMT) Activates motor networks directly via auditory-motor pathways.[9][3] First-line for gait, exercise, and neurological rehabilitation.[7][16][21]
Visual Guide timing via visual-motor pathways.[13] FOG, VR-based rehab, patients with hearing impairment.[28][27]
Vibrotactile Rhythmic mechanical vibration engages somatosensory and motor pathways.[4][29] Hearing-impaired patients, noisy environments, wearable cueing applications.[30][31]
Proprioceptive Rhythmic body-based feedback from equipment, manual facilitation, or cyclic loading.[11][36] Pilates, cycling, running, aquatic therapy, balance training.
Multimodal Combines compatible rhythmic cues across two or more modalities at the same frequency and phase.[37] Complex motor relearning, group exercise, VR rehabilitation.[7]

Clinical Applications

Neural entrainment has been investigated across a wide range of neurological, musculoskeletal, respiratory and conditions.

Neurological Rehabilitation

Entrainment modalities can be utilised in conjunction with traditional neurological rehabilitation practice in the following neurological conditions;

Stroke

In stroke rehabilitation, RAS and RMT can be utilised to improve walking speed, gait symmetry, balance, endurance, and community ambulation.[3][7][38] Large randomised controlled trials demonstrate clinically meaningful improvements when auditory cueing is integrated into gait training.[21]

Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

In PD external rhythmic cueing compensates for impaired internal timing mechanisms associated with basal ganglia dysfunction.[3] Improvements have been demonstrated in gait speed, stride length, FOG, and gait variability using auditory,[16] visual (VR),[27] tactile,[30] and closed-loop cueing systems.[31][34][35]

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

In MS, RAS and RMT improve gait, balance, fatigue, and cognition through auditory-motor entrainment and striatal-thalamocortical recruitment.[38] Stimulation rate should be calibrated to fatigue level and neurological status.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

In TBI, neurological music therapy (NMT), has demonstrated increased frontoparietal network coupling and improved executive function.[39] RAS has demonstrated feasibility for gait rehabilitation in this population.

Other Conditions

Preliminary evidence supports entrainment-based interventions in Huntington’s disease,[10] cerebral palsy (CP), and Alzheimer’s disease.[33][40]

In cerebellar ataxia, stimulation rhythm via tACS near the patient’s spontaneous movement rate shows the most benefit.[41]

In focal epilepsy, rhythmic sensory stimulation may stabilise cortical networks but remains exploratory; parameter selection requires caution.[8]

Musculoskeletal and Sports Physiotherapy

Running Cadence Retraining

Auditory cueing using either a metronome or tempo-matched music can increase running cadence (step rate) by approximately 5–10%, improving sensorimotor synchronisation and promoting gait retraining.[1] Increased cadence is associated with reduced ground contact time and lower-limb loading, reducing over-stride related injuries.[42][43]

Strength and Resistance Training

Rhythmically synchronised music improves movement timing, repetition consistency, motor anticipation and force production through beta-band sensorimotor activity, while preferred music may also improve exercise performance and motivation.[15][18][44]

Cardiac Rehabilitation

Rhythm-matched music in cardiac rehabilitation programs improves exercise adherence, increases training volume, and reduces perceived exertion at equivalent workloads.[18][44] Group formats exploit interpersonal synchrony for additional adherence benefits.

Aquatic Physiotherapy

The oscillatory resistance of water combined with rhythmic auditory cueing produces multimodal entrainment, with the added benefit that buoyancy reduces movement-associated pain, enabling more consistent and higher-volume rhythmic training than on land.[45]

Respiratory Physiotherapy

Anxiety and Pain Management

Slow rhythmic music encourages slower, deeper breathing, promotes parasympathetic activation and contributes to relaxation and pain modulation through respiratory entrainment.[46][47]

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

In patients with COPD, structured breathing rhythms induced by entrainment, reduce respiratory rate and dynamic hyperinflation, improving dyspnoea, exercise tolerance and ventilatory efficiency.[48][49]

Autonomic Regulation

Slow breathing at approximately 0.1 Hz maximises heart-rate variability, baroreflex sensitivity and autonomic regulation, forming the physiological basis of resonant frequency breathing and pranayama.[47]

Respiratory Muscle Training

Singing and wind instrument performance, part of AMT, provide structured respiratory muscle training that improves breath control, respiratory muscle function and pulmonary rehabilitation outcomes.[50]

The following table summarises entrainment modalities used per condition and the clinical effect it creates.

Condition Entrainment Modality Clinical Evidence
Neurological Rehabilitation Stroke RAS; RMT Improve gait speed, cadence, stride length, gait symmetry and walking endurance.[21][38]

RMT and auditory–motor entrainment also enhance balance and upper-limb motor recovery.[3][7]

PD RAS; visual cueing (VR-based); vibrotactile cueing Improve gait velocity, stride length, cadence, FOG and gait variability.[3][16][28][27][30][31][34][35]
MS, TBI, Huntington’s disease, CP and Alzheimer’s disease RAS; RMT; AMT Improve gait, balance, fatigue, and cognition.[33][38][39][40][41]
Musculoskeletal & Sports Physiotherapy Overstriding-related injuries Tempo-matched metronome or music cueing Increase running cadence, reducing ground contact time and lower-limb loading.[42][43]
Strength & Resistance Training General strength and resistance training Tempo-matched music Improves movement timing, repetition consistency and force production.[44]
Cardiac Rehabilitation Cardiac rehabilitation Rhythm-matched music Improve exercise adherence, training volume, motivation and reduce perceived exertion.[18][44]
Aquatic Physiotherapy Stroke gait rehabilitation Rhythmic auditory cueing with buoyancy-assisted movement Facilitating gait retraining and motor repatterning after neurological injury.[45]
Respiratory Physiotherapy Anxiety and pain management Slow-tempo music Encourages slower, deeper breathing.[46][47]
COPD / pulmonary rehabilitation Rhythmically structured breathing (e.g., pursed-lip breathing) Structured breathing rhythms reduce respiratory rate.[48]
Autonomic regulation Slow breathing (~6 breaths/min) Maximises heart-rate variability, baroreflex sensitivity and autonomic regulation.[47]
Respiratory muscle training Singing and wind instrument playing Improves breath control, and respiratory muscle function.[50]

Clinical Considerations for Physiotherapists

Assessment and Modality Selection

Before introducing any rhythmic cue, assess the patient's natural movement cadence, sensory status (hearing, vision, somatosensory function), cognitive load tolerance, fatigue profile, and music preferences.

Modality selection should reflect the patient's neurological impairment, sensory abilities, cognitive status, and rehabilitation goals.[4] Where music is used, patient preference significantly affects dopaminergic engagement and adherence.[18]

Treatment Parameters and Progression

Set the initial cue at the patient's natural cadence to establish entrainment before challenging it. Progress tempo in 5% increments above baseline, allowing 2–3 minutes of consolidation at each step. Neural oscillations adapt more readily by accelerating than by slowing; if the clinical goal requires reducing tempo, use smaller increments and longer consolidation periods.[1]

Once baseline entrainment is established, increase task complexity by adding dual tasks, environmental challenges, upper limb coordination, or balance demands.[3]

The long-term goal in most patients is functional movement with reduced reliance on external cues; achieve this through intermittent cueing, gradual fading, and internalisation of the rhythm.[13][37]

Precautions and Contraindications

The following list includes some of the precautions applicable before utilising neural entrainment modalities.

  • Avoid abrupt tempo changes greater than 10%, which may disrupt rather than support entrainment.[1]
  • In epilepsy, avoid high-frequency photic stimulation; rhythmic visual flicker at certain frequencies may be provocative in photosensitive individuals.[8]
  • In severe cognitive impairment, complex multimodal cues may increase cognitive demand; start with a single, simple auditory cue.[14]
  • In fatigue-prone conditions such as MS, monitor for fatigue-induced entrainment breakdown.[38]
  • Non-invasive brain stimulation such as tACS requires appropriate screening for implanted electronic devices and other medical contraindications.[32]

Conclusion

Neural entrainment represents a promising neurophysiological approach that aligns rhythmic sensory stimulation with intrinsic brain activity to facilitate motor control, cognition, and neuroplasticity. The strongest evidence supports rhythmic auditory stimulation for improving gait after stroke and in PD,[5][21] while vibrotactile, visual, multisensory, and electrical entrainment techniques continue to evolve.[4]

Neural entrainment should complement, rather than replace, evidence-based rehabilitation. The greatest benefits occur when rhythmic stimulation is integrated with task-specific, repetitive, goal-directed practice. For physiotherapists, neural entrainment offers an evidence-based adjunct that can enhance motor learning.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Rosso M, Moens B, Leman M, Moumdjian L. Neural entrainment underpins sensorimotor synchronization to dynamic rhythmic stimuli. NeuroImage. 2023;277:120226.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Lakatos P, Gross J, Thut G. A new unifying account of the roles of neuronal entrainment. Curr Biol. 2019;29(18):R890-R905.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Pranjić M, Braun Janzen T, Vukšić N, Thaut M. From Sound to Movement: Mapping the Neural Mechanisms of Auditory-Motor Entrainment and Synchronization. Brain Sci. 2024;14(11):1063.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Barbaresi M, Nardo D, Fagioli S. Physiological Entrainment: A Key Mind–Body Mechanism for Cognitive, Motor and Affective Functioning, and Well-Being. Brain Sciences. 2025;15(1):3.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Jee S. Brain Oscillations and Their Implications for Neurorehabilitation. Brain Neurorehabil. 2021;14(1):e7.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Rosso M, Moens B, Leman M, Moumdjian L. Neural entrainment underpins sensorimotor synchronization to dynamic rhythmic stimuli. NeuroImage. 2023;277:120226.
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 Braun Janzen T, Koshimori Y, Richard NM, Thaut MH. Rhythm and Music-Based Interventions in Motor Rehabilitation: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives. Front Hum Neurosci. 2021;15:789467.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Narodova EA. Rhythmic Sensory Stimulation and Music-Based Interventions in Focal Epilepsy: Clinical Evidence, Mechanistic Rationale, and Digital Perspectives-A Narrative Review. J Clin Med. 2025;15(1):288.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Cannon JJ, Patel AD. How Beat Perception Co-opts Motor Neurophysiology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2021;25(2):137-150.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Cope TE, Grube M, Singh B, Burn DJ, Griffiths TD. The basal ganglia in perceptual timing: Timing performance in Multiple System Atrophy and Huntington’s disease. Neuropsychologia. 2014;52:73-81.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Sokolov AA, Miall RC, Ivry RB. The Cerebellum: Adaptive Prediction for Movement and Cognition. Trends Cogn Sci. 2017;21(5):313-332.
  12. ↑ Penhune VB, Zatorre RJ. Rhythm and time in the premotor cortex. PLoS Biol. 2019;17(6):e3000293.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Whitton SA, Jiang F. Sensorimotor synchronization with visual, auditory, and tactile modalities. Psychol Res. 2023;87(7):2204-2217.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Jeong J, Nam SM, Seo H. Impact of sensory modality and tempo in motor timing. Front Psychol. 2024;15.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Barone J, Rossiter HE. Understanding the Role of Sensorimotor Beta Oscillations. Front Syst Neurosci. 2021;15:655886.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Calabrò RS, Naro A, Filoni S, et al. Walking to your right music: a randomized controlled trial on the novel use of treadmill plus music in Parkinson’s disease. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2019;16:68.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Meng H, Houston M, Zhang Y, Li S. Exploring the Prospects of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) as a Therapeutic Intervention for Post-Stroke Motor Recovery: A Narrative Review. Brain Sci. 2024;14(4):322.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Ballmann CG. The Influence of Music Preference on Exercise Responses and Performance: A Review. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2021;6(2):33.
  19. ↑ Maddison R, Nazar H, Obara I, Vuong QC. The efficacy of sensory neural entrainment on acute and chronic pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Pain. 2023;17(2):126-141.
  20. ↑ Shamsi F, Azadinia F, Shaygan M. Does brain entrainment using binaural auditory beats affect pain perception in acute and chronic pain?: a systematic review. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2024;24:34.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 Awad LN, Jayaraman A, Nolan KJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of using auditory-motor entrainment to improve walking after stroke: a multi-site randomized controlled trial of InTandemTM. Nat Commun. 2024;15(1):1081.
  22. ↑ Wu Z, Kong L, Zhang Q. Research Progress of Music Therapy on Gait Intervention in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(15):9568.
  23. ↑ Emmery L, Hackney ME, Kesar T, McKay JL, Rosenberg MC. An integrated review of music cognition and rhythmic stimuli in sensorimotor neurocognition and neurorehabilitation. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2023;1530(1):74-86.
  24. ↑ MedRhythms. Neurologic Music Therapy Compilation - MedRhythms. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzenDIwFllw [last accessed 6/7/2026]
  25. ↑ Liu C, Yang SY, Wang JY. Effects of Binaural Beat Music Integrated with Rhythmical Photic Stimulation on Anxiety Reduction among Healthy Daycare Center Staff. Depression and Anxiety. 2024;2024(1):5556702.
  26. ↑ Yang SY, Lin PH, Wang JY, Fu SH. Effectiveness of binaural beat music combined with rhythmical photic stimulation on older people with depressive symptoms in long-term care institution: a quasi-experimental pilot study. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2024;36(1):86.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Pokharel A, Tamrakar A, Chopra N. Use of AR/VR for Treatment of Freezing of Gait (FoG) in Parkinson’s Disease (PD). J Clin Med. 2026;15(5):2076.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Ginis P, Nackaerts E, Nieuwboer A, Heremans E. Cueing for people with Parkinson’s disease with freezing of gait: A narrative review of the state-of-the-art and novel perspectives. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine. 2018;61(6):407-413.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 De Angelis S, Princi AA, Dal Farra F, Morone G, Caltagirone C, Tramontano M. Vibrotactile-Based Rehabilitation on Balance and Gait in Patients with Neurological Diseases: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis. Brain Sciences. 2021;11(4):518.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Lheureux A, Lejeune T, Doncev I, Jeanne A, Stoquart G. Comparison of the effects of rhythmic vibrotactile stimulations and rhythmic auditory stimulations on Parkinson’s disease patients’ gait variability: a pilot study. Acta Neurol Belg. 2024;124(1):161-168.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Li D, Hallack A, Gwilym S, Li D, Hu MT, Cantley J. Investigating gait-responsive somatosensory cueing from a wearable device to improve walking in Parkinson’s disease. BioMed Eng OnLine. 2023;22(1):108.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Antal A, Herrmann CS. Transcranial Alternating Current and Random Noise Stimulation: Possible Mechanisms. Neural Plast. 2016;2016:3616807.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Nissim NR, Pham DVH, Poddar T, Blutt E, Hamilton RH. The impact of gamma transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) on cognitive and memory processes in patients with mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer’s disease: A literature review. Brain Stimul. 2023;16(3):748-755.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Cavanaugh JT, Porciuncula F, Zajac JA, et al. Gait Responses in People with Parkinson Disease During Autonomous Closed-loop Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation: An Exploratory Analysis. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2025;39(8):666-676.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Nojima I, Horiba M, Sahashi K, et al. Gait-combined closed-loop brain stimulation can improve walking dynamics in Parkinsonian gait disturbances: a randomised-control trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2023;94(11):938-944.
  36. ↑ Aman JE, Elangovan N, Yeh IL, Konczak J. The effectiveness of proprioceptive training for improving motor function: a systematic review. Front Hum Neurosci. 2015;8:1075.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Dhamala M, Assisi CG, Jirsa VK, Steinberg F, Scott Kelso JA. Multisensory Integration for Timing Engages Different Brain Networks. Neuroimage. 2007;34(2):764-773.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 Scataglini S, Van Dyck Z, Declercq V, Van Cleemput G, Struyf N, Truijen S. Effect of Music Based Therapy Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS) Using Wearable Device in Rehabilitation of Neurological Patients: A Systematic Review. Sensors. 2023;23(13):5933.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Martínez-Molina N, Siponkoski ST, Kuusela L, et al. Resting-State Network Plasticity Induced by Music Therapy after Traumatic Brain Injury. Neural Plast. 2021;2021:6682471.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Traikapi A, Konstantinou N. Gamma Oscillations in Alzheimer’s Disease and Their Potential Therapeutic Role. Front Syst Neurosci. 2021;15.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Liu X, Lin W, Zhang L, et al. Effects of cerebellar transcranial alternating current stimulation in cerebellar ataxia: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Front Neurosci. 2023;17:1180454.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Lally E, Ericksen H, Azen R, Huddleston W, Earl-Boehm J. Running Step Rate Can Be Increased With Both Metronome and Music Auditory Cueing. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation. 2025;35(2):131-136.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Figueiredo I, Reis e Silva M, Sousa JE. The Influence of Running Cadence on Biomechanics and Injury Prevention: A Systematic Review. Cureus. 17(8):e90322.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Lang Y, Ma W, Ma X. Research on the effect of music promoting sports performance under biosensor monitoring. Molecular & Cellular Biomechanics. 2025; 22 (2): 575 [Internet]. Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; 2022
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Aquatic Therapy for Neurological Repatterning in Chronic Stroke Patients. HydroWorx. March 25, 2026. Available from:https://www.hydroworx.com/aquatic-therapy-for-neurological-repatterning-in-chronic-stroke-patients/ [Last accessed June 30, 2026.]
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Hong YS, Park YS. Orofacial Central Pattern Generators: Neuroanatomical and Clinical Insights into Sensory, Motor, Emotional Integration. Exp Neurobiol. 2026;35(4):173-186.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 Zaccaro A, Piarulli A, Laurino M, et al. How Breath-Control Can Change Your Life: A Systematic Review on Psycho-Physiological Correlates of Slow Breathing. Front Hum Neurosci. 2018;12.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Smith JC. Chapter 1 - Respiratory rhythm and pattern generation: Brainstem cellular and circuit mechanisms. In: Chen R, Guyenet PG, eds. Respiratory Neurobiology. Vol 188. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Elsevier; 2022:1-35.
  49. ↑ Bhatt SP, Luqman-Arafath TK, Gupta AK, et al. Volitional pursed lips breathing in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease improves exercise capacity. Chron Respir Dis. 2013;10(1):5-10.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Wegrzyn K, Wegrzyn P, Dabrowska N, et al. Playing wind instruments and singing as a form of respiratory rehabilitation in pulmonary and neurological diseases. Onkologia i Radioterapia. 2024;19(4). Accessed June 30, 2026.
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