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...with the tendons and muscles, provides a natural brace to help protect the spine from injury. ...:https://www.coloradospineinstitute.com/education/anatomy/ligaments-tendons-muscles/ (last accessed 11.5.2020)</ref>.

[[File:Piron-guillaume-y5hQCIn1c6o-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless]] Thoracic back pain is more likely to be caused by serious underlying pathology than

...ch provide cushioning between the vertebrae and absorb pressure put on the spine. It is a nearly universal condition in those who reach advanced age, but it ...023, July 12. Available from: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/249036-overview]</ref>. Although some people experience no symptoms, others may fee

[[File:Sam-burriss-zHSX9o2 B7Y-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless|600x600px]] ...ge P. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19563667?dopt=Abstract Thoracic spine pain in the general population: prevalence, incidence and associated factor

In the [[Cervical Anatomy|cervical]] and thoracic regions it has a uniform width over the bodies and discs, but in the [[Lumb ...a serrated edge<ref>https://radiopaedia.org/articles/posterior-longitudinal-ligament</ref>.

[[File:Sam-burriss-zHSX9o2 B7Y-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless|375x375px]] ...o a compressed nerve root in the [[Thoracic Anatomy|thoracic area]] of the spine. This is the least common location for radiculopathy. The symptoms often fo

...oney V . [https://www.elsevier.com/books/movement-stability-and-lumbopelvic-pain/9780443101786 Movement, Stability & Lumbopelvic Pain 2nd Edition] . Ph ...ligamentum flavum, causing pretension in the neutral position (interspinous-supraspinous thoracolumbar ligamentous complex)<ref name=":0" />

.... It is a test that is simple to administer with excellent inter and intra-rater reliability, validity, and responsiveness. <br> Musculoskeletal conditions of the lumbar-pelvic region eg

...control study.] Brazilian journal of physical therapy. 2019 Jul 1;23(4):346-54. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6630105/#bi * Stiff upper thoracic spine or rounded upper spine causing cervical spine to hyperextend to see ahead.

...nt Biomechanics and Mechanotransduction in Normal, Injury and Degenerative Conditions. J Biomech Eng. 2011 July; 133(7): 71010–NaN.</ref>. ...superior facet of the inferior vertebra is rather flat in the cervical and thoracic regions and more convex in the lumbar region. The opposing inferior facet o

'''Original Editor '''- [https://www.physio-pedia.com/User:Chelsea_Mclene Chelsea Mclene] ...bone. It is a congenital overdevelopment of transverse process of cervical spine vertebra<ref>Fliegel BE, Menezes RG. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB

<div class="pp-no-course-suggestions pp-no-article-suggestions"></div> ...different types of spinal disorders ranging from low back pain to complex spine trauma and deformity.

<div class="pp-no-course-suggestions pp-no-article-suggestions"></div> ==Disease and Conditions==

...ussel Evidence-based Practice Project|Vrije Universiteit Brussel's Evidence-based Practice project]] [[File:SPINE ANATOMY.jpg|thumb]]

...rtant to be able to recognise the red flags that could point towards these conditions. ...l causes of back pain. Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine 2007;74(12):905-13.</ref> summarised examples of medical causes of back pain, and the sympto

...linician. Therapeutic advances in musculoskeletal disease. 2012 Apr;4(2):61-76. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3383520/ (access ...ystems-1417/bone-development-1497/bone-tissue-and-the-effects-of-aging-1500-11222/</ref> The reasons for this are multi factorial, including:.

...[https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/tanya-bell-jenje/ Tanya Bell-Jenje]<br> ...lude:<ref name=":0">Bell-Jenje T. Assessment and Treatment of the Thoracic Spine Course. Plus , 2021.</ref>

...on test and position. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation. 2019 Aug 1;28(6):635-9.</ref> ...g position. The examiner palpated the participant’s spine (approximately T9-T10 spinous process) with the thumbs and hands resting over the participant�

...[https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/tanya-bell-jenje/ Tanya Bell-Jenje]<br> [[Category:Thoracic Spine]]

...al of Physiotherapy. He is also the author of two books:<ref name="mulligan-5">Manual therapy NAGS,SNAGS,MWMS,etc by Brian R.Mulligan, 5th edition, 2004 ...of the extremities and SNAGS (sustained natural apophyseal glides) of the spine were first coined by Brian R. Mulligan <ref>Mulligan, BR: Manual Therapy �

...PV. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2953347/ Alternative pop-up for surfers with low back pain.] North American journal of sports physica ...'(4), pp.394-401. Available from: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1809-29502016000400394&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en#B3 (last accessed 16.9.2019)</r

...nerves Available: https://musculoskeletalkey.com/nerves-innervation-of-the-spine/<nowiki/>(accessed 6.2.2022)</ref> ...inal Nerves Available: https://www.verywellhealth.com/spinal-nerves-anatomy-4682599<nowiki/>(accessed 6.2.2022)</ref>

[[File:WhatsApp Image 2020-04-10 at 3.26.18 PM.jpg|thumb|256x256px|external and internal intercostal muscl ...in their function<ref>https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/intercostal-muscles</ref>.

...ation model whose time has come. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37(11):658-660.</ref> For example, patients who complain of [[Low Back Pain|LBP]] may a ...k pain: a distal link to a proximal problem. J Sport Rehabil. 2009;18(1):24-32.</ref>

...a good rehabilitation program incorporating stretches, strengthening and co-ordination and postural training. ...ion (whilst paddling) increases the demands on the structures of the upper spine and associated soft tissues.

This guide gives a general overview of the anatomy of the thoracic spine. It also includes some facts regarding pathophysiology in this region. The sagittal plane alignment of the Thoracic spine is on average 35% (normal range is 20° to 50°).<ref name=":2" />

...ib-fractures Rib fractures] Available: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/rib-fractures<nowiki/>(accessed 10.3.2022)</ref> Rib fractures can occur at any * 4th-10th ribs are the most common

[[File:Sam-burriss-zHSX9o2 B7Y-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless]] ...ted to the particular orientation, structure, and function of the thoracic spine in the vertebral column.

...n early fetal development and in turn cause structural problems within the spine and spinal cord. These deformities can range from mild to severe and may ca ...tal spinal deformities Available:https://khavkinclinic.com/congential-spine-deformities/ (accessed 10.10.2021)</ref>

...Spinal Manipulation Available: https://www.spine-health.com/glossary/spinal-manipulation (accessed 13.6.2021)</ref>. ...rapy,” Journal of Orthop Sports Physical Therapy 37, no. 6 (June 2007): 290-302.</ref> &nbsp;:

...ort], Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, Volume 20, Issue 4, P:722-727,</ref> ...Some Basic Science Aspects], Physiotherapy, 1997, Volume 83, Issue 4, P:186-189,</ref>&nbsp;

* Most commonly caused by blunt, anterior chest-wall trauma and deceleration injuries, with a reported incidence of 3% to 6. Sternal fractures are frequently diagnosed using a lateral chest x-ray or CT scan of the chest.

[[File:Chris-benson-yx-iJFybOBQ-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless|400x400px]] ...ture (FHP) is a poor habitual neck posture. It often co-exists with [[Upper-Crossed Syndrome|Upper Crossed Syndrome]]

...]. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation. 2019 Jan 1;32(1):179-89. ...ipants ages 18–34]. Physiotherapy theory and practice. 2013 May 1;29(4):328-34.</ref>

...ndrome: an anatomic-clinical study. Bull Hosp Jt Dis. 1993 Spring;53(1):21-4. Level of Evidence 3B</ref>&nbsp;that is still used in clinical practice i ...ct of the scapula, between the superior angle and the root of the scapular spine. Its function is to assist with various neck, arm and shoulder movements su

...lectromyographic study of 115 patients with [[Carpal Tunnel Syndrome|carpal-tunnel syndromes]] or lesions of the [[Ulnar Nerve|ulnar nerve]] at the [[el ...e Journal of Hand Surgery]: British & European Volume. 1985 Jun 1;10(2):202-4.</ref><br>

...and can be described as an exaggerated anterior curvature of the thoracic spine that is associated with aging<ref name="Jang et al." /> * Anterior curvature of the thoracic spine is normal and present due to the shape of the vertebral bodies and interver

...e disease in back pain? Physiotherapy Practice and Research. 2017;38(2): 73-77.</ref> Yet despite the low incidence rates, these conditions should be considered as differential diagnoses when individuals present wit

...''Original Editor '''- [https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/mauro-banfi/ Mauro Banfi] '''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPA ...pg|thumb|Figure 1. Thoracic kyphosis. ]][[Thoracic Hyperkyphosis|Increased thoracic kyphosis]] (see Figure 1)

...etching (neuropraxia,), tearing (called “avulsion” when the tear is at the spine, and “rupture” when it is not), or scarring (neuroma) of the brachial p The main mechanism of injury is hyper-abduction traction and depending on the intensity, cause signs and symptoms

...rt of a patient specific measure]. Physiotherapy canada. 1995 Oct;47(4):258-63.</ref> ...es in chronic low back pain.] European Spine Journal. 2010 Sep 1;19(9):1484-94.</ref>

...itor '''- [[User:Lorenza Perez|Lorena Perez]] as part of [http://www.physio-pedia.com/ICRC_Cerebral_Palsy_Content_Development_Project#Articles_to_be_dev ...: Dyskinetic and Ataxic. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3s-n4eFypPc [last accessed 13/08/16]</ref>

...to the first thoracic spinous process".&nbsp;The Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders describes Neck pai ...ain.] Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. 2004 Nov;34(11):686-700.</ref>. It is well known that chronic pain is often associated with ana

...lfunctionalcare.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Anatomy-of-the-quadrilateral-space.pdf The anatomy of the quadrilateral space with reference to quadrilat ...ted, and the syndrome is reported to be most common in active people age 20-40.<ref name=":0" /> QSS can be caused by anything that decreases the area o

...erneck LC. Dropped head syndrome in motor neuron disease. Arquivos de neuro-psiquiatria. 2006 Mar;64(1):118.</ref>. ...ia, and social implications.<ref name=":0">Burakgazi AZ, Richardson PK, Abu-Rub M. Dropped head syndrome due to neuromuscular disorders: Clinical manife

...iginal Editor '''- [[User:Oluwafikunayomi_Wole-Bankole|Oluwafikunayomi_Wole-Bankole]] ...logy, pathomechanism, diagnosis, and treatment. Spine J. 2011 Feb;11(2):153-7. doi: 10.1016/j.spinee.2010.12.010. PMID: 21296300.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm

...uxation, spinal cord injury without radiological abnormality, and multiple thoracic compression fracture<ref name=":0">Basu S (2012) Spinal injuries in childre ...y. A Review By Organ System. Phy. Med. and Rehab Clinics, 2015; 26(1); 109-132.

...ca [serial on the Internet]. (2010, Oct), [cited April 4, 2012]; 42(5): 214-219. Available from: Academic Search Premier.</ref> ...ong term results of combined radio surgical treatment. Thorax. 1997; 52:284-6</ref>

In your small groups (max 4), which you will have self-selected at the start of the module, you will work collaboratively to develo ...xercise compliance in patients with low back pain – could look at specific conditions, and look at barriers and facilitators <br>14. The relationship between fit

[[File:Afif-kusuma-txzpx9doVWs-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless]] * Patient-completed, condition-specific functional status questionnaire with 10 items including pain, perso

...rs speaks of primary headaches. The primary headaches are migraine, tension-type headache, cluster headache and other trigeminal autonomic cephalgias an ...ther primary headaches are clinically heterogeneous. According to the (ICHD-III) the pathogenesis of other primary headaches is still poorly understood.

...sten Tsuei|Kristen Tsuei]] as part of the [[Texas State University Evidence-based Practice Project]] '''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{ ...ord or it can damage the spinal cord itself.<ref name="Mayo" />&nbsp;These conditions are referred to as [[Cervical Radiculopathy|radiculopathy]] and [[Cervical

...e has ceased.<ref name=":0" />Its progressive nature is more often seen in conditions of neurologic and systemic involvement.<ref name=":2" /> While it can occur ...sis. Orthopaedics & Traumatology: Surgery & Research. 2013 Feb 1;99(1):S124-39.[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877056812002745]</re

...ased on the course by [https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/daphne-xuan/ Daphne Xuan]<br> ...1;12(2):e053999.</ref>[[File:C-spine-picture.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Cervical spine]]

...reased flexion of the hips, and a compensatory hyperlordosis in the lumbar spine. There is co-existing over activity and tightness of the&nbsp;thoracolumbar extensors: [[

...e disease in back pain? Physiotherapy Practice and Research. 2017;38(2): 73-77.</ref> ...for potential serious pathologies. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2020; epub: 1-23.</ref>

...ritis: Diagnosis and Treatment; ''Am Fam Physician.'' 2009 Sep 15;80(6):617-620</ref> The thoracic wall consists of the

...Aetiology of rib stress fractures in rowers]. Sports Med 2002; 32 (13): 819-36</ref> ...of ultrasound?. British journal of sports medicine. 2017 Jul 1;51(14):1093-7.</ref>

...based on the course by [https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/donna-fisher/ Donna Fisher]<br>'''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{F ...nal braces are off-the-shelf, although certain situations call for a custom-made device.<ref name=":0" />

...:52-62.</ref>:'''positive upper limb tension test A''' (ULTTa), '''involved-side cervical''' '''rotation range of motion less than 60 degrees''', '''pos ...ULTTa'''</u>: Any one of the following: A) symptom reproduction; B) side-to-side difference &gt;10 degrees in elbow extension; or C) with regard to invo

...[https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/tanya-bell-jenje/ Tanya Bell-Jenje]<br> ...ll of these conditions must be considered when assessing patients who have thoracic pain.

...fractures: an anatomical approach. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol 2008;18:189-195 [Level2]</ref> ...known as the axis, is one of three atypical vertebrae. The axis shows a peg-like odontoid process that projects itself superiorly from the body. The odo

...al Breathing are abnormal respiratory patterns specifically related to over-breathing. They range from simple upper chest breathing to, at the extreme e ...page on [[Breathing Pattern Disorders|Breathing Pattern Disorders]] for in-depth knowledge on anatomy, aetiology, classification, etc.

...isten Templin|Kristen Templin]] as part of the [[Temple University Evidence-Based Practice Project|Temple University EBP Project]] [[File:Thoracic grade 2 T6 PA mobilisations.png|right|frameless]]

...man spine: 6 in the [[Cervical Anatomy|cervical]] region (neck), 12 in the thoracic region (middle back), and 5 in the [[Lumbar Anatomy|lumbar region]] (lower ...at deal of strength. They also provide a shock-absorbing effect within the spine and prevent the vertebrae from grinding together. They consist of three maj

...ei=33D_Y-b6G8K1ywTR2b-ACw&scisig=AAGBfm0_NiE12NAJ6fxWp2LhTVd1yZ0_wA Canine Thoracic Costovertebral and Costotransverse Joints:] Three Case Reports of Dysfuncti ...rscapular pain], university of johannesburg, 2015 </ref> Together with the thoracic cage, the costovertebral and costotransverse joints provide stability.<ref

...For example, a nerve root impingement in the [[Cervical Anatomy|cervical]] spine may result in pain and weakness in the forearm. Similarly, an impingement i ...from Rochester, Minnesota, 1976 through 1990. Brain. 1994 Apr 1;117(2):325-35.</ref>....

...een the active ([[Paraspinal Muscles|muscles]]), passive (osteoligamentous spine), and neural components is necessary to prevent [[Lumbar Instability|instab ...l movements result in various forces acting on the [[Lumbar Anatomy|lumbar spine]] and [[sacrum]], that is:

.../books/NBK499966/ (last accessed 20.4.2020)</ref> Image R severe case - pre-operative image of a 22 year old male with Scheuermann's Disease ...[https://search.proquest.com/openview/ff361ff1a9fb8c730bcf25b99dc8ffec/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=40235 Current concepts in Scheuermann's kyphosis]. Ort

...c pathologies. This article discusses the key anatomical structures of the thoracic vertebrae and rib cage, including the bony structures, articulations, ligam ...ere are four types of bursae: adventitious, subcutaneous, synovial, and sub-muscular.

...ow joint. Physiotherapists have a functional knowledge of the complicated 3-joint elbow complex as well as its associated anatomy. They can apply this k ...with the person's symptoms. This assessment will help them develop a multi-modal treatment approach that is individualised to the specific problems and

[[File:Bianca-jordan-IPjWtxPJUQc-unsplash.jpg|right|frameless]] ...n normal subjects. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1980 May 1;134(5):979-83.</ref>

.... The costoclavicular syndrome: a ‘new cause’. Ann Rheum Dis. 1986; 45: 916-920.</ref> The brachial nerve plexus, subclavian artery and subclavian vein ...octtcr's syndrome): review of 320 Cases. Surg Gvnecol Obstet 1949 ; 88 : 89-127</ref><div>

'''Original Editor '''- [[User:Cindy John-Chu|Cindy John-Chu]] ...[Spinal Cord Injury|spinal cord injury (SCI)]], usually resulting from high-impact, direct trauma, the patient with spinal shock typically being found a

[[File:Scoliosis-01.jpg|right|frameless]] ...s an observable deformity. Scoliosis is defined by the [[Cobb's angle]] of spine curvature in the coronal plane and is often accompanied by vertebral rotati

...ussel Evidence-based Practice Project|Vrije Universiteit Brussel's Evidence-based Practice project]] ...InSeminars in arthritis and rheumatism 2009 Apr 1 (Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 361-365). WB Saunders. (Level of evidence: 2B)</ref>. Also, peripheral entheses

...nd lower extremity strength exercises with cardiovascular training in a non-weight bearing environment. Swimmers are unfortunately prone to injuries.   ...ntion strategies in competitive swimmers]. Sports health. 2012 May;4(3):246-51. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3435931/ (l

...re of the carotid artery, http://www.webmd.com/heart/picture-of-the-carotid-artery#1 (accessed 31 may 2017)</ref> (10 in image at R) ...mmon carotid artery, https://radiopaedia.org/articles/common-carotid-artery-2 (accessed 30 may 2017)</ref>

...skeletal disorders, pain, and reabilitation. Philadelphia: Elsevier. (p 582-587)</ref><ref name=":0" /> ...ients with costochondritis or Tietze's syndrome, Wiley-Blackwell, 2001, p23-29</ref>.

...acc.co.nz/assets/research/2b0c243f75/acupuncture-musculoskeletal-conditions-review.pdf</ref> However, physiotherapists in particular continue to utilise ...nd travels upwards to the axillary fossa. It then descends down the anterio-medial aspect of the arm to the cubital fossa and continues between [[Palmar

...k factors.] Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2008 Jun;56(6):1098-105</ref>. ...ention is to prevent pathological to reduce the risk of age-related health conditions and their consequences, to promote active and healthy ageing, and to preven

...l., 2015).]][[Scoliosis]] can be described as an abnormal curvature of the spine. The [[Cobb's angle|Cobb angle]] (fig.2) and Risser sign are measures commo ...n's orthopaedics. 2012 Dec 11;7(1):3-9.</ref>. It develops at the age of 11-18 and takes up 90% of idiopathic scoliosis cases in children. The female to

...based on the course by [https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/shala-cunningham/ Shala Cunningham ]<br> ...s). It also introduces the Proposed Classification System for the Cervical Spine.

...uchbinder R. Non-specific low back pain. Lancet. 2017 Feb 18;389(10070):736-747. </ref> ...at can help to differentiate between mechanical back pain and inflammatory conditions, as well as discussing other [[The Flag System|red flag]] features that sho

The [[Lumbar Anatomy|lumbar spine]] supports much of the upper body's weight. [[Intervertebral disc|Intervert ...ls (Myocyte)|muscle]]. It provides coverage for the organs, generates intra-abdominal pressure, and moves the vertebral column. This article discusses t

...ussel Evidence-based Practice Project|Vrije Universiteit Brussel's Evidence-based Practice project]]. ..., Kavishwar RA, Shetty AP, Shanmuganathan R. Spondylolysis of the Thoracic Spine with Instability: A Rare Cause for Myelopathy. JBJS Case Connector. 2022 Ja

...ven vertebrae as well as articulations with the occiput and upper thoracic spine, each with different axes of movement which can combine in a multitude of w Movements of the cervical spine are 1) constrained by the [[Anatomy cervical|anatomy]] of motion segments a

...elissa Osti|Melissa Osti]] as part of the [[Texas State University Evidence-based Practice Project]] [[File:T9-T10 change fracture from MVA.png|thumb|348x348px|T9-T10 chance fracture from MVA]]

...LLIF and ALIF, ''3''(1), 2–18. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2414-469X.2015.10.05</nowiki></ref>. ...Bthe%2Bpostsurgical%2Borthopedic%2Bpatient.%26ots%3DSR6thhGWWS%26sig%3Dklqy-qyNuMYlSy0rQ8DGa_bGFtg&hl=en&sa=T&oi=gsb&ct=res&cd=0&d=735113821912823632&ei

...lininger|Chris Slininger]] as part of the [[Texas State University Evidence-based Practice Project]] ...ribes compression of the neurovascular structures as they exit through the thoracic outlet (cervicothoracobrachial region).

[[File:1757-1626-1-377-3.jpg|alt=Cleidocranial dysplasia face and shoulders.jpg|thumb|[https://www. ...may also have other skeletal abnormalities, such as short stature, curved spine, or malformed pelvis.

...ic outlet, leading to a spectrum of symptoms ranging from mild pain to limb-threatening complications. It remains a complex and controversial condition ...oclavicular, and subcoracoid spaces. Anatomical abnormalities and acquired conditions contribute to the compression of these structures, leading to the developme

...hnson]] and [[User:Kasi Lessley|Kasie Lessley]] from the [http://www.physio-pedia.com/Pathophysiology_of_Complex_Patient_Problems Bellarmine University ...Management of Crohn's Disease in Adults. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009; 104: 465-483. doi:10.1038/ajg.208.168</ref>

...emol Yves|Demol Yves]] as part of the [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel Evidence-based Practice Project]] ...so be the result of traumatic (fractures and instability) and inflammatory conditions or caused by herniated discs or tumours.

...r:Krista Dayton|Krista Dayton]] as part of the [[Temple University Evidence-Based Practice Project|Temple University EBP Project]] * Timeline-When are the patients reported symptoms at their worst?

...re dermatomes? Available:https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-are-dermatomes (accessed 25.5.2022)</ref> {{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/ | rowspan="3" |Thoracic

...s warranted to determine the extent and nature of the relationship between thoracic manipulation and shoulder pain. ...or cuff, improving range of motion, decreasing pain, and returning to a pre-morbid level of injury. Manipulations to the cervicothoracic junction were p

[[File:Scoliosis-01.jpg|thumb|scoliosis clinical presentation|alt=scoliosis clinical presenta Scoliosis is an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. It is most often diagnosed in childhood or early adolescence.

...ased on the course by [https://members.physio-pedia.com/course_tutor/krista-eskay/ Krista Eskay]<br> ...muscle forces. When muscle pull is altered due to genetic or neuromuscular conditions, alignment may be impacted. Atypical alignment can directly affect function

...lasia and cervical laminoplasty Case report. J Neurosurg Spine 2009; 11:417-420. http://thejns.org/doi/pdf/10.3171/2009.4.SPINE09164 (accessed on Apr 20 ...ely 98% of patients with achondroplasia have a mutation resulting from G-to-A substitution in the ''FGFR3'' gene; the majority of cases result from a sp