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<div class="editorbox">'''Original Editor '''- [[User:Ilona Malkauskaite| Ilona Malkauskaite]]'''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} &nbsp;    <br>
<div class="editorbox">'''Original Editor '''- [[User:Ilona Malkauskaite| Ilona Malkauskaite]]'''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} </div>
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[[File:Yoga pose.jpg|thumb|315x315px]]
== Definition ==
[[File:Kamal yoga school (3).jpg|thumb|Yoga class ]]


== Definition                                                                                        ==
Yoga is defined as a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, a part of which, includes breathing control, simple meditation, and the adoption of specific bodily postures. Yoga is widely practised for health and relaxation <ref name=":5">Iyengar BK. Light on yoga: the definitive guide to yoga practice. Thorsons; 2015. </ref>.                                                                                            
A Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, a part of which, including breath control, simple meditation, and the adoption of specific bodily postures, is widely practised for health and relaxation <ref>Oxford dictionaries. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/yoga<nowiki/>(Accessed 10 marts 2018). </ref>.  


== Description ==
== Description ==
Yoga originated thousands of years ago in India as an integrated physical, mental, and spiritual practice based on ancient Vedic philosophy, and is connected to Ayurveda, the system of traditional Indian medicine. During the 20th century, yoga became increasingly recognised outside India, and over the past decades it has continued to grow in popularity worldwide as system for promoting health and well-being. While modern yoga often focuses on physical poses and is sometimes thought of as a type of exercise, the practice usually incorporates one or more of the mental or spiritual elements that are traditionally part of yoga, such as relaxation, concentration, or meditation. For this reason, yoga is considered a mind-body exercise <ref>Cochrane Library. http://www.cochranelibrary.com/app/content/special-collections/article/?doi=10.1002/14651858.YFIHWB (Accessed 10 marts 2018).</ref>. Fortunately there is a growing number of studies involving yoga as a method of treatment. Threre has been found some positive evidence findings in this alternative treatment method in connection with cancer pacients, mental illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, elderly population, chronic non-specific low back pain and diabetes.
Yoga originated thousands of years ago in India as an integrated physical, mental, and spiritual practice based on ancient Vedic philosophy, and is connected to Ayurveda, the system of traditional Indian medicine<ref name=":5" />. During the 20th century, yoga became increasingly recognised outside India, and over the past decades it has continued to grow in popularity worldwide as a system for promoting health and well-being.  


== Yoga and chronic nonspecific low back pain                                ==
While modern yoga often focuses on physical poses and is sometimes thought of as a type of exercise, the practice usually incorporates one or more of the mental or spiritual elements that are traditionally part of yoga, such as relaxation, concentration, or meditation. For this reason, yoga is considered a mind-body exercise<ref>Wieland LS, Skoetz N, Pilkington K, Vempati R, D'Adamo CR, Berman BM. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28076926/ Yoga treatment for chronic non‐specific low back pain.] Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017(1).</ref>.
From previous studies and the recent randomized control trials (RCTs) it is known that yoga can reduce pain and disability, can be practiced safely, and is well received by participants. Some studies also indicate that yoga may improve psychological symptoms, but these effects are currently not as well established <ref>Douglas G Chang, Jacquelyn A Holt, Marisa Sklar, Erik J Groessl.Yoga as a treatment for chronic low back pain: A systematic review of the literature. J Orthop Rheumatol. 2016; January 1; 3(1): 1–8.</ref>. The strongest and most consistent evidence emerged for the short-term benefits of yoga on functional disability. However, before any definitive conclusions can be drawn, there are a number of methodological concerns that need to be addressed. In particular, it is recommended that future RCTs include an active control group to determine whether yoga has specific treatment effects and whether yoga offers any advantages over traditional exercise programs and other alternative therapies for chronic low back pain <ref>Beggs T,Holtzman S. Yoga for chronic low back pain: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain Research and Management.2013 Sep-Oct;18(5):267-72.</ref>.    


== Yoga and cardiovascular diseases                                                                                                                            ==
Physiological effects of yoga include decreased heart rate and [[Blood Pressure|blood pressure]] and physical effects include weight loss and increased [[muscle]] strength, A potential underlying mechanisms of these effects are proposed to include the stimulation of pressure receptors leading to enhanced vagal activity and reduced cortisol. The reduction in cortisol, in turn, may contribute to positive effects such as enhanced [[Immune System|immune]] function and a lower prematurity rate.<ref name=":0">Field T. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27502816/ Yoga research review.] Complementary therapies in clinical practice. 2016 Aug 1;24:145-61. </ref>
[[File:Yoga-eat.jpg|thumb|215x215px]]
There are studies showing that yoga therapy in addition to standard medical therapy reduces blood pressure, load on heart and improves parasympathetic activity in heart failure patients <ref>Krishna B, Pal P,Gaur GS, et al. Effect of Yoga Therapy on Heart Rate, Blood Pressure and Cardiac Autonomic Function in Heart Failure. JCDR 2014;Jan;8(1):14-6.</ref> as well as in patiens with hypertension <ref>Cohen DL, Boudhar S, Bowler A, Townsend RR et al. Blood Pressure Effects of Yoga, Alone or in Combination With Lifestyle Measures: Results of the Lifestyle Modification and Blood Pressure Study (LIMBS). JCH 2016 Aug;18(8):809-16. </ref>.Wolf et al has found that a short yoga program for the patients diagnosed with hypertension to practice at home seems to have an antihypertensive effect, as well as a positive effect on self-rated quality of life compared to controls. This implies that simple yoga exercises may be useful as a supplementary blood pressure therapy in addition to medical treatment when prescribed by primary care physicians<ref>Wolff M, Sundquist S et al. Impact of yoga on blood pressure and quality of life in patients with hypertension - a controlled trial in primary care, matched for systolic blood pressure. BMC Cardiovasc Disord, 2013 Dec 7;13:111. </ref>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                         


== Yoga and cancer patients      ==
== Yoga Research ==
Results from a systematic review revealed that yoga interventions may be beneficial for reducing cancer-related fatigue in women with breast cancer <ref>Sadja J,  Mills P. Effects of yoga interventions on fatigue in cancer patients and survivors: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Explore (NY). 2013 Jul-Aug;9(4):232-43. </ref>.Sharma et al in their systematic review has also found positive  evidence of yoga as an altenative and complementary treatment. Though there has been liminations in the reviewed studies <ref>Sharma M, Haider T, Knowlde A.Yoga as an alternative and complementary treatment for cancer: a systematic review. J Altern Complement Med. 2013 Nov;19(11):870-5.
</ref>. In a recently published systematic review has been found that  yoga improved the physical and psychological symptoms, quality of life, and markers of immunity of the patients, providing a strong support for yoga's integration into conventional cancer care <ref>Agarwal RP, Maroko A.Yoga into Cancer Care: A Review of the Evidence-based Research.Int J Yoga. 2018 Jan-Apr;11(1):3-29. </ref>.
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== References ==
{{#ev:youtube|v=1Je0mu4GG-o}}<ref>Infognostica. The Science of Yoga (Part 1 - Meditation Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Je0mu4GG-o [last accessed 31/03/2016]</ref>
The field of yoga research has been growing in a number of areas such as [[Chronic Pain and the Brain|chronic pain]], [[Autoimmune Disorders|autoimmune]] disease, [[Cardiovascular Disease|cardiovascular disease]] and [[Mental Health, Physical Activity and Physical Therapy|mental health]] <ref name=":0" />. Bibliometric reviews of published research studies reveal a three-fold increase in number of publications using yoga as a therapeutic intervention between 2003 to 2013, with more than 200 new yoga-related titles published each year since 2011. <ref>Jeter PE, Slutsky J, Singh N, Khalsa SB. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26196166/ Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies from 1967 to 2013.] The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 2015 Oct 1;21(10):586-92.</ref><ref>McCall MC. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4097914/ In search of yoga: Research trends in a western medical database.] International journal of yoga. 2014 Jan;7(1):4.</ref> Research suggests trauma-informed yoga program is beneficial and seeks to create a safer yoga practice for vulnerable individuals with a trauma history and may improve emotional and physical wellbeing in institutionalized and community settings.<ref>Tibbitts DC, Aicher SA, Sugg J, Handloser K, Eisman L, Booth LD, Bradley RD. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149718921000410?via%3Dihub Program evaluation of trauma-informed yoga for vulnerable populations.] Evaluation and Program Planning. 2021 Apr 20:101946.</ref>
 
Research has looked into the benefits of yoga on:
 
'''Psychological symptoms and disorders'''
* [[Mindfulness]] and job stress <ref>Shelov DV, Suchday S, Friedberg JP. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19751539/ A pilot study measuring the impact of yoga on the trait of mindfulness.] Behavioural and cognitive psychotherapy. 2009 Oct 1;37(5):595.</ref><ref>Cowen VS. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20006289/ Functional fitness improvements after a worksite-based yoga initiative.] Journal of bodywork and movement therapies. 2010 Jan 1;14(1):50-4.</ref><ref>Brisbon NM, Lowery GA. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19949871/ Mindfulness and levels of stress: a comparison of beginner and advanced hatha yoga practitioners.] Journal of religion and health. 2011 Dec;50(4):931-41.</ref>
* [[Generalized Anxiety Disorder|Anxiety]]<ref>Michalsen A, Grossman P, Acil A, Langhorst J, Lüdtke R, Esch T, Stefano G, Dobos G. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16319785/ Rapid stress reduction and anxiolysis among distressed women as a consequence of a three-month intensive yoga program.] Medical Science Monitor. 2005 Dec 1;11(12):CR555-61.</ref><ref>Telles S, Gaur V, Balkrishna A. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20178291/ Effect of a yoga practice session and a yoga theory session on state anxiety.] Perceptual and motor skills. 2009 Dec;109(3):924-30.</ref><ref>Khalsa SB, Shorter SM, Cope S, Wyshak G, Sklar E. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19657730/ Yoga ameliorates performance anxiety and mood disturbance in young professional musicians]. Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback. 2009 Dec 1;34(4):279.</ref>
* [[Depression]]<ref>Shapiro D, Cook IA, Davydov DM, Ottaviani C, Leuchter AF, Abrams M. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2176141/ Yoga as a complementary treatment of depression: effects of traits and moods on treatment outcome]. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine. 2007 Dec 1;4(4):493-502.</ref><ref>Uebelacker LA, Tremont G, Epstein-Lubow G, Gaudiano BA, Gillette T, Kalibatseva Z, Miller IW. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20400694/ Open trial of Vinyasa yoga for persistently depressed individuals: evidence of feasibility and acceptability.] Behavior Modification. 2010 May;34(3):247-64.</ref><ref>Kamei T, Toriumi Y, Kimura H, Kumano H, Ohno S, Kimura K. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10883793/ Decrease in serum cortisol during yoga exercise is correlated with alpha wave activation.] Perceptual and motor skills. 2000 Jun;90(3):1027-32.</ref>
* [[Sleep: Regulation and Assessment|Sleep]]<ref>Khalsa SB. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15707256/ Treatment of chronic insomnia with yoga: A preliminary study with sleep–wake diaries]. Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback. 2004 Dec;29(4):269-78.</ref><ref>Beddoe AE, Lee KA, Weiss SJ, Powell Kennedy H, Yang CP. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20338897/ Effects of mindful yoga on sleep in pregnant women: a pilot study.] Biological research for nursing. 2010 Apr;11(4):363-70.</ref><ref>Manjunath NK, Telles S. I[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15937373/ nfluence of Yoga & Ayurveda on self-rated sleep in a geriatric population.] Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2005 May 1;121(5):683.</ref>
'''Pain syndromes'''
* [[Low Back Pain|Low back pain]]<ref>Sherman KJ, Cherkin DC, Erro J, Miglioretti DL, Deyo RA. Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2005;143:849-56</ref><ref>Saper RB, Sherman KJ, Cullum-Dugan D, Davis RB, Phillips RS, Culpepper L. Yoga for chronic low back pain in a predominantly minority population: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Altern Ther Health Med 2009;15(6): 18-27.</ref><ref>Williams KA, Petronis J, Smith D, Goodrich D, Wu J, Ravi N, et al. Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain. Pain 2005;115:107-17</ref><ref>Wieland, L. S., Skoetz, N., Pilkington, K., Vempati, R., D'Adamo, C. R., and  Berman, B. M. Yoga treatment for chronic non‐specific low back pain. The Cochrane Library. 2017 Jan</ref><ref>Williams K, Abildso C, Steinberg L, Doyle E, Epstein B, Smith D, et al. Evaluation of the effectiveness and efficacy of Iyengar yoga therapy on chronic low back pain. Spine 2009;34(19):2066-76.</ref>
* [[Headaches and Dizziness|Headaches]] <ref>John PJ, Sharma N, Sharma CM, Kankane A. Effectiveness of yoga therapy in the treatment of migraine without aura: a randomized controlled trial. Headache 2007;47:654e61</ref>
* [[Osteoarthritis]]<ref>Garfinkel MS, Schumacher HR, Husain A, Levy M, Reshetar RA. Evaluation of a yoga based regimen for treatment of osteoarthritis of the hands. J Rheumatol 1994;21:2341-3</ref><ref>Kolasinski SL, Garfinkel M, Tsai AG, Matz W, Van Dyke A, Schumacher HR. Iyengar yoga for treating symptoms of osteoarthritis of the knees: a pilot study. J Altern Complement Med 2005;11(4):689-93.</ref>
* [[Rheumatoid Arthritis|Rheumatoid arthritis]]<ref>Evans S, Moieni M, Taub R, Subramanian SK, Tsao JC, Sternlieb B, et al. Iyengar yoga for young adults with rheumatoid arthritis: results from a mixedmethods pilot study. J Pain Symptom Manage 2010;39(5):904-13</ref>
'''Cardiovascular conditions'''
* [[Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)|Coronary artery disease]]<ref>Yogendra J, Yogendra HJ, Ambardekar S, Lele RD, Shetty S, Dave M, et al. Beneficial effects of yoga lifestyle on reversibility of ischaemic heart disease: caring heart project of International Board of Yoga. J Assoc Physicians India 2004;52:283-9.</ref><ref>Manchanda SC, Narang R, Reddy KS, Sachdeva U, Prabhakaran D, Dharmanand S, et al. Retardation of coronary atherosclerosis with yoga lifestyle intervention. J Assoc Physicians India 2000;48:687-94</ref>
* [[Pulmonary Hypertension|Hypertension]] <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>Damodaran A, Malathi A, Patil N, Shah N, Suryavansihi, Marathe S. Therapeutic potential of yoga practices in modifying cardiovascular risk profile in middle aged men and women. J Assoc Physicians India 2002;50:633-40.</ref><ref>Cade WT, Reeds DN, Mondy KE, Overton ET, Grassino J, Tucker S, et al. Yoga lifestyle intervention reduces blood pressure in HIV-infected adults with cardiovascular disease risk factors. HIV Med 2010;11:379-88</ref>
'''Autoimmune conditions'''
* [[Asthma]]<ref>Manocha R, Marks GB, Kenchington P, Peters D, Salome CM. Sahaja yoga in the management of moderate to severe asthma: a randomised controlled trial. Thorax 2002;57:110-5</ref>
* [[Diabetes Mellitus Type 2|Diabetes]]<ref>Singh S, Malhotra V, Singh KP, Madhu SV, Tandon OP. Role of yoga in modifying certain cardiovascular functions in type 2 diabetic patients. J Assoc Physicians India 2004;52:203-6.</ref><ref>Malhotra V, Singh S, Tandon OP, Sharma SB. The beneficial effects of yoga in diabetes. Nepal Med Coll J 2005;7:145-7</ref>
* [[Multiple Sclerosis (MS)|Multiple Sclerosis]]<ref>Oken BS, Kishiyama S, Zajdel D, Bourdette D, Carlsen J, Haas M, et al. Randomized controlled trial of yoga and exercise in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2004;62:2058-64</ref>
'''Immune conditions'''
* [[Lymphoma]]<ref>Cohen L, Warneke C, Fouladi RT, Rodriguez MA, Chaoul-Reich A. Psychological adjustment and sleep quality in a randomized trial of the effects of a Tibetan yoga intervention in patients with lymphoma. Cancer 2004;15: 2253-60.</ref>
* [[Breast Cancer]]<ref>Rao MR, Raghuram N, Nagendra HR, Gopinath KS, Srinath BS, Diwakar RB, et al. Anxiolytic effects of a yoga program in early breast cancer patients undergoing conventional treatment. A randomized controlled trial. Complement Ther Med 2009;17:1-8</ref><ref>Chandwani KD, Thornton B, Perkins GH, Arun B, Raghuram NV, Nagendra HR, et al. Yoga improves quality of life and benefit finding in women undergoing radiotherapy for breast cancer. J Soc Integr Oncol 2010;8:43-55</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>Culos-Reed S, Carlson L, Daroux L, Hately-Aldous S. A pilot study of yoga for breast cancer survivors: physical and psychological benefits. Psychooncology 2006;15:891-7.</ref><ref>Speed-Andrews AE, Stevinson C, Belanger LJ, Mirus JJ, Courneya KS. Pilot Eval Iyengar Yoga Program for breast cancer survivors. Cancer Nurs 2010;33: 369-81.</ref>
'''Pregnancy conditions'''
* [[Hypertension in Pregnancy|Hypertension]] and pre-term labour<ref>Narendran S, Nagarathna R, Narendran V, Gunasheela S, Nagendra HR. Efficacy of yoga on pregnancy outcome. J Altern Complement Med 2005;11: 237-44.</ref>
* [[Stress and Health|Stress]] and [[Vagus Nerve|vagal]] activity<ref>Sathyaprabha TN, Satishchandra P, Pradhan C, Sinha S, Kaveri B, Thennarasu K, et al. Modulation of cardiac autonomic balance with adjuvant yoga in patients with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2008;12: 245-52.</ref>
* Labour pain<ref>Chuntharapat S, Petpichetchian W, Hatthakit U. Yoga during pregnancy: effects on maternal comfort, labor pains and birth outcomes. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2008;14:105-15.</ref>
'''Physiological effects'''
* [[Pulse rate|Heartrate]] and [[Blood Pressure|blood pressure]]<ref>Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M. Tai Chi/Yoga effects on anxiety, heartrate, EEG and math computations. Complement Ther Clin Pract, 2010;16: 235-8.</ref><ref>Madanmohan Udupa K, Bhavanani AB, Shatapathy CC, Sahai A. Modulation of cardiovascular response to exercise by yoga training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004;48:461-5.</ref><ref>Harinath K, Malhotra AS, Pal K, Prasad R, Kumar R, Kain TC, et al. Effects of Hatha yoga and Omkar meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psychologic profile, and melatonin secretion. J Altern Complement Med 2004; 10:261-8.</ref>
* Pulmonary measures <ref>Sarang P, Telles S. Effects of two yoga based relaxation techniques on heart rate variability. Int J Stress Manag 2006;13:460-75.</ref><ref>Sinha S, Singh SN, Monga YP, Ray US. Improvement of glutathione and total antioxidant status with yoga. J Altern Complement Med 2007;13: 1085-90.</ref>
'''Physical effects'''
* Weight loss<ref>McIver S, O’Halloran P, McGartland M. Yoga as a treatment for binge eating disorder: a preliminary study. Complement Ther Med 2009;17: 196-202.</ref><ref>Kristal AR, Littman AJ, Benitez D, White E. Yoga practice is associated with attenuated weight gain in healthy, middle-aged men and women. Altern Ther Health Med 2005;11:28-33</ref><ref>Telles S, Naveen VK, Balkrishna A, Kumar S. Short term health impact of a yoga and diet change program on obesity. Med Sci Monit 2010;16:35-40.</ref>
* Leg strength<ref>Donohue B, Miller A, Beisecker M, Houser D, Valdez R, Tiller S, et al. Effects of brief yoga exercises and motivational preparatory interventions in distance runners: results of a control trial. Br J Sports Med 2006;40:60-3.</ref>
 
As a growing area of research, studies in the yoga literature have commonly been criticised due to various limitations, such as lack of randomization, and standardisation of baseline characteristics, self-selection of samples, significant variability in the samples across studies including sample selection and sample size variables and lack of good physical activity/attention control or comparison groups<ref name=":0" />.
[[File:Yoga pose.jpg|thumb|330x330px]]
 
== Yoga and persistent non-specific low back pain ==
Evidence suggests that yoga is a safe, effective, holistic and complementary approach for the treatment of [[Low Back Pain|chronic low back pain]] (LBP) in reducing pain and disability <ref>Tilbrook HE, Cox H, Hewitt CE, Kang'ombe AR, Chuang LH, Jayakody S, Aplin JD, Semlyen A, Trewhela A, Watt I, Torgerson DJ. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22041945/ Yoga for chronic low back pain: a randomized trial.] Annals of internal medicine. 2011 Nov 1;155(9):569-78. </ref> <ref>Cramer H, Lauche R, Haller H, Dobos G. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23246998/ A systematic review and meta-analysis of yoga for low back pain]. The Clinical journal of pain. 2013 May 1;29(5):450-60.</ref><ref>Cramer H, Ward L, Saper R, Fishbein D, Dobos G, Lauche R. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26116216/ The safety of yoga: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.] American journal of epidemiology. 2015 Aug 15;182(4):281-93.</ref><ref>Goode AP, Coeytaux RR, McDuffie J, Duan-Porter W, Sharma P, Mennella H, Nagi A, Williams Jr JW. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27062965/ An evidence map of yoga for low back pain.] Complementary therapies in medicine. 2016 Apr 1;25:170-7.</ref><ref>Holtzman S, Beggs RT. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23894731/ Yoga for chronic low back pain: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials]. Pain Research and Management. 2013 Oct;18(5):267-72.</ref>. For this reason, yoga has recently been included as a non-pharmacological adjunct in clinical guidelines for LBP in the USA, UK and Canada. <ref>Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, McLean RM, Forciea MA. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28192789/ Noninvasive treatments for acute, subacute, and chronic low back pain: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians.] Annals of internal medicine. 2017 Apr 4;166(7):514-30.</ref><ref>National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, Low back pain and sciatica in over 16s: assessment and management. NICE guideline [NG59].2020 [Online] Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng59 </ref>.     
 
Several potential benefits have been proposed in relation to the practice of yoga in [[Chronic Pain and the Brain|persistent pain]] conditions, including changes in physiological, behavioural and psychological factors <ref>Wren AA, Wright MA, Carson JW, Keefe FJ. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21247696/ Yoga for persistent pain: new findings and directions for an ancient practice]. Pain. 2011 Mar;152(3):477.</ref>.     
 
Potential mechanisms for these changes include improved:     
* muscular [[Strength Training|strength]]     
* flexibility     
* [[balance]] - resulting from the physical poses (asanas),       
* increased mental and physical relaxation     
* improved controlled breathing (pranayama)     
* improved body awareness and attention control gained through both the physical and mental aspects of yoga <ref>Sorosky, S., Stilp, S. and Akuthota, V., Yoga and pilates in the management of low back pain. Current reviews in musculoskeletal medicine, 2008 1(1): 9-47.</ref><ref>Daubenmier, J., Mehling, W., Price, C., Bartmess-Levasseur, E., Acree, M. and Stewart, A., Exploration of body awareness and pain and emotion regulation among yoga and meditation practitioners: does type of mind-body practice matter?. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 2012 12(1): 54.</ref>.     
 
[[Low Back Pain|Chronic nonspecific low back pain]] is a multidimensional condition due to the range of psychological and sociological factors that are linked to poor outcomes<ref>Costa, L.D.C.M., Maher, C.G., McAuley, J.H., Hancock, M.J., Herbert, R.D., Refshauge, K.M. and Henschke, N.. Prognosis for patients with chronic low back pain: inception cohort study. Bmj, 2009 339:3829.</ref> such as [[depression]], low self-efficacy, pain catastrophizing and fear avoidance<ref>Brinzo, J.A., Crenshaw, J.T., Thomas, L. and Sapp, A., The effect of yoga on depression and pain in adult patients with chronic low back pain: a systematic review protocol. JBI database of systematic reviews and implementation reports, 2016: 14:56-66</ref><ref>Pinheiro, M.B., Ferreira, M.L., Refshauge, K., Maher, C.G., Ordoñana, J.R., Andrade, T.B., Tsathas, A. and Ferreira, P.H., Symptoms of depression as a prognostic factor for low back pain: a systematic review. The Spine Journal, 2016: 16(1):105-116.</ref>. As the benefits from yoga also include mood enhancement and stress reduction, it has been proposed that Yoga as a mind-body therapy could address the physical and psychological aspects of chronic nonspecific low back pain.<ref>Tran MD, Holly RG, Lashbrook J, Amsterdam EA. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11832673/ Effects of Hatha yoga practice on the health‐related aspects of physical fitness.] Preventive cardiology. 2001 Oct;4(4):165-70.</ref> <ref>Schure MB, Christopher J, Christopher S. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00625.x Mind–body medicine and the art of self‐care: teaching mindfulness to counseling students through yoga, meditation, and qigong]. Journal of Counseling & Development. 2008 Jan;86(1):47-56.</ref><ref>Foster NE, Anema JR, Cherkin D, Chou R, Cohen SP, Gross DP, Ferreira PH, Fritz JM, Koes BW, Peul W, Turner JA. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29573872/ Prevention and treatment of low back pain: evidence, challenges, and promising directions]. The Lancet. 2018 Jun 9;391(10137):2368-83.</ref>   
 
Upon reviewing the current body of research, a 2017 Cochrane review of 12 trials with 1080 participants concluded with moderate-certainty of evidence that participation in yoga led to better outcomes at six  months compared to no exercise, however, evidence was limited for effectiveness compared to other back specific exercise. The Cochrane review and a meta-analysis by Beggs et al. commented on low quality of evidence due to methodological concerns <ref name=":4">Holtzman S, Beggs RT. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23894731/ Yoga for chronic low back pain: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials]. Pain Research and Management. 2013 Oct;18(5):267-72.</ref>.   
 
== Yoga and Cardiovascular diseases  ==
Krishna et al in their RCT study has found that yoga therapy in addition to standard medical therapy:                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
* reduces [[Blood Pressure|blood pressure]],                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
* reduces load on heart                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
* improves [[Parasympathetic System|parasympathetic]] activity                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
* decreases the [[Sympathetic Nervous System|sympathetic]] activity in heart failure patients <ref name=":2">Krishna BH, Pal P, Pal GK, Balachander J, Jayasettiaseelon E, Sreekanth Y, Sridhar MG, Gaur GS. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3939525/ Effect of yoga therapy on heart rate, blood pressure and cardiac autonomic function in heart failure.] Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR. 2014 Jan;8(1):14.</ref>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
Wolf et al in a controlled study has found that a short yoga program for the patients diagnosed with [[hypertension]] to practice at home seems to have an antihypertensive effect, as well as a positive effect on self-rated quality of life compared to controls. This implies that simple yoga exercises may be useful as a supplementary blood pressure therapy in addition to medical treatment when prescribed by primary care physicians<ref name=":1">Wolff M, Sundquist K, Lönn SL, Midlöv P. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24314119/ Impact of yoga on blood pressure and quality of life in patients with hypertension–a controlled trial in primary care, matched for systolic blood pressure.] BMC cardiovascular disorders. 2013 Dec;13(1):1-9. </ref>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
 
== Yoga and Cancer patients      ==
Results from a systematic review conducted by Sadja and Mills revealed that yoga interventions may be beneficial for reducing cancer-related fatigue in women with breast cancer <ref name=":3">Sadja J, Mills PJ. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3781173/ Effects of yoga interventions on fatigue in cancer patients and survivors: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials.] Explore. 2013 Jul 1;9(4):232-43. </ref>.
 
Sharma et al in their systematic review has also found positive evidence of yoga as an alternative and complementary treatment <ref>Sharma M, Haider T, Knowlde A.Yoga as an alternative and complementary treatment for cancer: a systematic review. J Altern Complement Med. 2013 Nov;19(11):870-5.
</ref>. In a recently published systematic review by Agarwal and Adi Maroko-Afek has been found that  yoga improved the physical and psychological symptoms, quality of life, and markers of immunity of the patients, providing a strong support for yoga's integration into conventional [[Cancer Pain|cancer]] care <ref>Agarwal RP, Maroko A.Yoga into Cancer Care: A Review of the Evidence-based Research.Int J Yoga. 2018 Jan-Apr;11(1):3-29. </ref>.
 
{{#ev:youtube|oDS5YUdaidA}}<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDS5YUdaidA&feature=emb_title</ref>
 
== Yoga and Physiotherapy ==
Posadzki and Parekh believe that both yoga and physiotherapy share underlying concepts, such as a holistic approach towards health and well-being of an individual.
 
Yoga can be beneficial to physiotherapeutic goals:
* improving range of motion,
* increasing flexibility,
* strengthening weakened muscles,
* alleviating pain
* enhancing patient’s general function
* somatic dysfunction can be released and flexibility and range of movement improved.
With regards to physiotherapeutic processes, yoga as a set of "static dynamic procedures" can be considered as a means to "self-mobilisation" of the nervous system and the joints, spine and limbs.<ref>Posadzki P, Parekh S. Yoga and physiotherapy: a speculative review and conceptual synthesis. Chinese journal of integrative medicine. 2009 Feb 1;15(1):66-72.</ref>
 
== References ==
 
<references />
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Interventions]]

Latest revision as of 16:56, 16 December 2022

Original Editor - Ilona MalkauskaiteTop Contributors - Ilona Malkauskaite, Sarah Popperwell, Abbey Wright, Kim Jackson, Vidya Acharya, Leana Louw and Rishika Babburu  

Definition[edit | edit source]

Yoga class

Yoga is defined as a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, a part of which, includes breathing control, simple meditation, and the adoption of specific bodily postures. Yoga is widely practised for health and relaxation [1].

Description[edit | edit source]

Yoga originated thousands of years ago in India as an integrated physical, mental, and spiritual practice based on ancient Vedic philosophy, and is connected to Ayurveda, the system of traditional Indian medicine[1]. During the 20th century, yoga became increasingly recognised outside India, and over the past decades it has continued to grow in popularity worldwide as a system for promoting health and well-being.

While modern yoga often focuses on physical poses and is sometimes thought of as a type of exercise, the practice usually incorporates one or more of the mental or spiritual elements that are traditionally part of yoga, such as relaxation, concentration, or meditation. For this reason, yoga is considered a mind-body exercise[2].

Physiological effects of yoga include decreased heart rate and blood pressure and physical effects include weight loss and increased muscle strength, A potential underlying mechanisms of these effects are proposed to include the stimulation of pressure receptors leading to enhanced vagal activity and reduced cortisol. The reduction in cortisol, in turn, may contribute to positive effects such as enhanced immune function and a lower prematurity rate.[3]

Yoga Research[edit | edit source]

[4]

The field of yoga research has been growing in a number of areas such as chronic pain, autoimmune disease, cardiovascular disease and mental health [3]. Bibliometric reviews of published research studies reveal a three-fold increase in number of publications using yoga as a therapeutic intervention between 2003 to 2013, with more than 200 new yoga-related titles published each year since 2011. [5][6] Research suggests trauma-informed yoga program is beneficial and seeks to create a safer yoga practice for vulnerable individuals with a trauma history and may improve emotional and physical wellbeing in institutionalized and community settings.[7]

Research has looked into the benefits of yoga on:

Psychological symptoms and disorders

Pain syndromes

Cardiovascular conditions

Autoimmune conditions

Immune conditions

Pregnancy conditions

Physiological effects

Physical effects

As a growing area of research, studies in the yoga literature have commonly been criticised due to various limitations, such as lack of randomization, and standardisation of baseline characteristics, self-selection of samples, significant variability in the samples across studies including sample selection and sample size variables and lack of good physical activity/attention control or comparison groups[3].

Yoga pose.jpg

Yoga and persistent non-specific low back pain[edit | edit source]

Evidence suggests that yoga is a safe, effective, holistic and complementary approach for the treatment of chronic low back pain (LBP) in reducing pain and disability [57] [58][59][60][61]. For this reason, yoga has recently been included as a non-pharmacological adjunct in clinical guidelines for LBP in the USA, UK and Canada. [62][63].

Several potential benefits have been proposed in relation to the practice of yoga in persistent pain conditions, including changes in physiological, behavioural and psychological factors [64].

Potential mechanisms for these changes include improved:

  • muscular strength
  • flexibility
  • balance - resulting from the physical poses (asanas),  
  • increased mental and physical relaxation
  • improved controlled breathing (pranayama)
  • improved body awareness and attention control gained through both the physical and mental aspects of yoga [65][66].

Chronic nonspecific low back pain is a multidimensional condition due to the range of psychological and sociological factors that are linked to poor outcomes[67] such as depression, low self-efficacy, pain catastrophizing and fear avoidance[68][69]. As the benefits from yoga also include mood enhancement and stress reduction, it has been proposed that Yoga as a mind-body therapy could address the physical and psychological aspects of chronic nonspecific low back pain.[70] [71][72]

Upon reviewing the current body of research, a 2017 Cochrane review of 12 trials with 1080 participants concluded with moderate-certainty of evidence that participation in yoga led to better outcomes at six months compared to no exercise, however, evidence was limited for effectiveness compared to other back specific exercise. The Cochrane review and a meta-analysis by Beggs et al. commented on low quality of evidence due to methodological concerns [73].

Yoga and Cardiovascular diseases[edit | edit source]

Krishna et al in their RCT study has found that yoga therapy in addition to standard medical therapy:

Wolf et al in a controlled study has found that a short yoga program for the patients diagnosed with hypertension to practice at home seems to have an antihypertensive effect, as well as a positive effect on self-rated quality of life compared to controls. This implies that simple yoga exercises may be useful as a supplementary blood pressure therapy in addition to medical treatment when prescribed by primary care physicians[31].

Yoga and Cancer patients[edit | edit source]

Results from a systematic review conducted by Sadja and Mills revealed that yoga interventions may be beneficial for reducing cancer-related fatigue in women with breast cancer [42].

Sharma et al in their systematic review has also found positive evidence of yoga as an alternative and complementary treatment [74]. In a recently published systematic review by Agarwal and Adi Maroko-Afek has been found that  yoga improved the physical and psychological symptoms, quality of life, and markers of immunity of the patients, providing a strong support for yoga's integration into conventional cancer care [75].

[76]

Yoga and Physiotherapy[edit | edit source]

Posadzki and Parekh believe that both yoga and physiotherapy share underlying concepts, such as a holistic approach towards health and well-being of an individual.

Yoga can be beneficial to physiotherapeutic goals:

  • improving range of motion,
  • increasing flexibility,
  • strengthening weakened muscles,
  • alleviating pain
  • enhancing patient’s general function
  • somatic dysfunction can be released and flexibility and range of movement improved.

With regards to physiotherapeutic processes, yoga as a set of "static dynamic procedures" can be considered as a means to "self-mobilisation" of the nervous system and the joints, spine and limbs.[77]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Iyengar BK. Light on yoga: the definitive guide to yoga practice. Thorsons; 2015.
  2. ↑ Wieland LS, Skoetz N, Pilkington K, Vempati R, D'Adamo CR, Berman BM. Yoga treatment for chronic non‐specific low back pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017(1).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Field T. Yoga research review. Complementary therapies in clinical practice. 2016 Aug 1;24:145-61. 
  4. ↑ Infognostica. The Science of Yoga (Part 1 - Meditation Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Je0mu4GG-o [last accessed 31/03/2016]
  5. ↑ Jeter PE, Slutsky J, Singh N, Khalsa SB. Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies from 1967 to 2013. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 2015 Oct 1;21(10):586-92.
  6. ↑ McCall MC. In search of yoga: Research trends in a western medical database. International journal of yoga. 2014 Jan;7(1):4.
  7. ↑ Tibbitts DC, Aicher SA, Sugg J, Handloser K, Eisman L, Booth LD, Bradley RD. Program evaluation of trauma-informed yoga for vulnerable populations. Evaluation and Program Planning. 2021 Apr 20:101946.
  8. ↑ Shelov DV, Suchday S, Friedberg JP. A pilot study measuring the impact of yoga on the trait of mindfulness. Behavioural and cognitive psychotherapy. 2009 Oct 1;37(5):595.
  9. ↑ Cowen VS. Functional fitness improvements after a worksite-based yoga initiative. Journal of bodywork and movement therapies. 2010 Jan 1;14(1):50-4.
  10. ↑ Brisbon NM, Lowery GA. Mindfulness and levels of stress: a comparison of beginner and advanced hatha yoga practitioners. Journal of religion and health. 2011 Dec;50(4):931-41.
  11. ↑ Michalsen A, Grossman P, Acil A, Langhorst J, Lüdtke R, Esch T, Stefano G, Dobos G. Rapid stress reduction and anxiolysis among distressed women as a consequence of a three-month intensive yoga program. Medical Science Monitor. 2005 Dec 1;11(12):CR555-61.
  12. ↑ Telles S, Gaur V, Balkrishna A. Effect of a yoga practice session and a yoga theory session on state anxiety. Perceptual and motor skills. 2009 Dec;109(3):924-30.
  13. ↑ Khalsa SB, Shorter SM, Cope S, Wyshak G, Sklar E. Yoga ameliorates performance anxiety and mood disturbance in young professional musicians. Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback. 2009 Dec 1;34(4):279.
  14. ↑ Shapiro D, Cook IA, Davydov DM, Ottaviani C, Leuchter AF, Abrams M. Yoga as a complementary treatment of depression: effects of traits and moods on treatment outcome. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine. 2007 Dec 1;4(4):493-502.
  15. ↑ Uebelacker LA, Tremont G, Epstein-Lubow G, Gaudiano BA, Gillette T, Kalibatseva Z, Miller IW. Open trial of Vinyasa yoga for persistently depressed individuals: evidence of feasibility and acceptability. Behavior Modification. 2010 May;34(3):247-64.
  16. ↑ Kamei T, Toriumi Y, Kimura H, Kumano H, Ohno S, Kimura K. Decrease in serum cortisol during yoga exercise is correlated with alpha wave activation. Perceptual and motor skills. 2000 Jun;90(3):1027-32.
  17. ↑ Khalsa SB. Treatment of chronic insomnia with yoga: A preliminary study with sleep–wake diaries. Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback. 2004 Dec;29(4):269-78.
  18. ↑ Beddoe AE, Lee KA, Weiss SJ, Powell Kennedy H, Yang CP. Effects of mindful yoga on sleep in pregnant women: a pilot study. Biological research for nursing. 2010 Apr;11(4):363-70.
  19. ↑ Manjunath NK, Telles S. Influence of Yoga & Ayurveda on self-rated sleep in a geriatric population. Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2005 May 1;121(5):683.
  20. ↑ Sherman KJ, Cherkin DC, Erro J, Miglioretti DL, Deyo RA. Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2005;143:849-56
  21. ↑ Saper RB, Sherman KJ, Cullum-Dugan D, Davis RB, Phillips RS, Culpepper L. Yoga for chronic low back pain in a predominantly minority population: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Altern Ther Health Med 2009;15(6): 18-27.
  22. ↑ Williams KA, Petronis J, Smith D, Goodrich D, Wu J, Ravi N, et al. Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain. Pain 2005;115:107-17
  23. ↑ Wieland, L. S., Skoetz, N., Pilkington, K., Vempati, R., D'Adamo, C. R., and  Berman, B. M. Yoga treatment for chronic non‐specific low back pain. The Cochrane Library. 2017 Jan
  24. ↑ Williams K, Abildso C, Steinberg L, Doyle E, Epstein B, Smith D, et al. Evaluation of the effectiveness and efficacy of Iyengar yoga therapy on chronic low back pain. Spine 2009;34(19):2066-76.
  25. ↑ John PJ, Sharma N, Sharma CM, Kankane A. Effectiveness of yoga therapy in the treatment of migraine without aura: a randomized controlled trial. Headache 2007;47:654e61
  26. ↑ Garfinkel MS, Schumacher HR, Husain A, Levy M, Reshetar RA. Evaluation of a yoga based regimen for treatment of osteoarthritis of the hands. J Rheumatol 1994;21:2341-3
  27. ↑ Kolasinski SL, Garfinkel M, Tsai AG, Matz W, Van Dyke A, Schumacher HR. Iyengar yoga for treating symptoms of osteoarthritis of the knees: a pilot study. J Altern Complement Med 2005;11(4):689-93.
  28. ↑ Evans S, Moieni M, Taub R, Subramanian SK, Tsao JC, Sternlieb B, et al. Iyengar yoga for young adults with rheumatoid arthritis: results from a mixedmethods pilot study. J Pain Symptom Manage 2010;39(5):904-13
  29. ↑ Yogendra J, Yogendra HJ, Ambardekar S, Lele RD, Shetty S, Dave M, et al. Beneficial effects of yoga lifestyle on reversibility of ischaemic heart disease: caring heart project of International Board of Yoga. J Assoc Physicians India 2004;52:283-9.
  30. ↑ Manchanda SC, Narang R, Reddy KS, Sachdeva U, Prabhakaran D, Dharmanand S, et al. Retardation of coronary atherosclerosis with yoga lifestyle intervention. J Assoc Physicians India 2000;48:687-94
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Wolff M, Sundquist K, Lönn SL, Midlöv P. Impact of yoga on blood pressure and quality of life in patients with hypertension–a controlled trial in primary care, matched for systolic blood pressure. BMC cardiovascular disorders. 2013 Dec;13(1):1-9.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Krishna BH, Pal P, Pal GK, Balachander J, Jayasettiaseelon E, Sreekanth Y, Sridhar MG, Gaur GS. Effect of yoga therapy on heart rate, blood pressure and cardiac autonomic function in heart failure. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR. 2014 Jan;8(1):14.
  33. ↑ Damodaran A, Malathi A, Patil N, Shah N, Suryavansihi, Marathe S. Therapeutic potential of yoga practices in modifying cardiovascular risk profile in middle aged men and women. J Assoc Physicians India 2002;50:633-40.
  34. ↑ Cade WT, Reeds DN, Mondy KE, Overton ET, Grassino J, Tucker S, et al. Yoga lifestyle intervention reduces blood pressure in HIV-infected adults with cardiovascular disease risk factors. HIV Med 2010;11:379-88
  35. ↑ Manocha R, Marks GB, Kenchington P, Peters D, Salome CM. Sahaja yoga in the management of moderate to severe asthma: a randomised controlled trial. Thorax 2002;57:110-5
  36. ↑ Singh S, Malhotra V, Singh KP, Madhu SV, Tandon OP. Role of yoga in modifying certain cardiovascular functions in type 2 diabetic patients. J Assoc Physicians India 2004;52:203-6.
  37. ↑ Malhotra V, Singh S, Tandon OP, Sharma SB. The beneficial effects of yoga in diabetes. Nepal Med Coll J 2005;7:145-7
  38. ↑ Oken BS, Kishiyama S, Zajdel D, Bourdette D, Carlsen J, Haas M, et al. Randomized controlled trial of yoga and exercise in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2004;62:2058-64
  39. ↑ Cohen L, Warneke C, Fouladi RT, Rodriguez MA, Chaoul-Reich A. Psychological adjustment and sleep quality in a randomized trial of the effects of a Tibetan yoga intervention in patients with lymphoma. Cancer 2004;15: 2253-60.
  40. ↑ Rao MR, Raghuram N, Nagendra HR, Gopinath KS, Srinath BS, Diwakar RB, et al. Anxiolytic effects of a yoga program in early breast cancer patients undergoing conventional treatment. A randomized controlled trial. Complement Ther Med 2009;17:1-8
  41. ↑ Chandwani KD, Thornton B, Perkins GH, Arun B, Raghuram NV, Nagendra HR, et al. Yoga improves quality of life and benefit finding in women undergoing radiotherapy for breast cancer. J Soc Integr Oncol 2010;8:43-55
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Sadja J, Mills PJ. Effects of yoga interventions on fatigue in cancer patients and survivors: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Explore. 2013 Jul 1;9(4):232-43.
  43. ↑ Culos-Reed S, Carlson L, Daroux L, Hately-Aldous S. A pilot study of yoga for breast cancer survivors: physical and psychological benefits. Psychooncology 2006;15:891-7.
  44. ↑ Speed-Andrews AE, Stevinson C, Belanger LJ, Mirus JJ, Courneya KS. Pilot Eval Iyengar Yoga Program for breast cancer survivors. Cancer Nurs 2010;33: 369-81.
  45. ↑ Narendran S, Nagarathna R, Narendran V, Gunasheela S, Nagendra HR. Efficacy of yoga on pregnancy outcome. J Altern Complement Med 2005;11: 237-44.
  46. ↑ Sathyaprabha TN, Satishchandra P, Pradhan C, Sinha S, Kaveri B, Thennarasu K, et al. Modulation of cardiac autonomic balance with adjuvant yoga in patients with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2008;12: 245-52.
  47. ↑ Chuntharapat S, Petpichetchian W, Hatthakit U. Yoga during pregnancy: effects on maternal comfort, labor pains and birth outcomes. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2008;14:105-15.
  48. ↑ Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M. Tai Chi/Yoga effects on anxiety, heartrate, EEG and math computations. Complement Ther Clin Pract, 2010;16: 235-8.
  49. ↑ Madanmohan Udupa K, Bhavanani AB, Shatapathy CC, Sahai A. Modulation of cardiovascular response to exercise by yoga training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004;48:461-5.
  50. ↑ Harinath K, Malhotra AS, Pal K, Prasad R, Kumar R, Kain TC, et al. Effects of Hatha yoga and Omkar meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psychologic profile, and melatonin secretion. J Altern Complement Med 2004; 10:261-8.
  51. ↑ Sarang P, Telles S. Effects of two yoga based relaxation techniques on heart rate variability. Int J Stress Manag 2006;13:460-75.
  52. ↑ Sinha S, Singh SN, Monga YP, Ray US. Improvement of glutathione and total antioxidant status with yoga. J Altern Complement Med 2007;13: 1085-90.
  53. ↑ McIver S, O’Halloran P, McGartland M. Yoga as a treatment for binge eating disorder: a preliminary study. Complement Ther Med 2009;17: 196-202.
  54. ↑ Kristal AR, Littman AJ, Benitez D, White E. Yoga practice is associated with attenuated weight gain in healthy, middle-aged men and women. Altern Ther Health Med 2005;11:28-33
  55. ↑ Telles S, Naveen VK, Balkrishna A, Kumar S. Short term health impact of a yoga and diet change program on obesity. Med Sci Monit 2010;16:35-40.
  56. ↑ Donohue B, Miller A, Beisecker M, Houser D, Valdez R, Tiller S, et al. Effects of brief yoga exercises and motivational preparatory interventions in distance runners: results of a control trial. Br J Sports Med 2006;40:60-3.
  57. ↑ Tilbrook HE, Cox H, Hewitt CE, Kang'ombe AR, Chuang LH, Jayakody S, Aplin JD, Semlyen A, Trewhela A, Watt I, Torgerson DJ. Yoga for chronic low back pain: a randomized trial. Annals of internal medicine. 2011 Nov 1;155(9):569-78.
  58. ↑ Cramer H, Lauche R, Haller H, Dobos G. A systematic review and meta-analysis of yoga for low back pain. The Clinical journal of pain. 2013 May 1;29(5):450-60.
  59. ↑ Cramer H, Ward L, Saper R, Fishbein D, Dobos G, Lauche R. The safety of yoga: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American journal of epidemiology. 2015 Aug 15;182(4):281-93.
  60. ↑ Goode AP, Coeytaux RR, McDuffie J, Duan-Porter W, Sharma P, Mennella H, Nagi A, Williams Jr JW. An evidence map of yoga for low back pain. Complementary therapies in medicine. 2016 Apr 1;25:170-7.
  61. ↑ Holtzman S, Beggs RT. Yoga for chronic low back pain: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain Research and Management. 2013 Oct;18(5):267-72.
  62. ↑ Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, McLean RM, Forciea MA. Noninvasive treatments for acute, subacute, and chronic low back pain: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Annals of internal medicine. 2017 Apr 4;166(7):514-30.
  63. ↑ National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, Low back pain and sciatica in over 16s: assessment and management. NICE guideline [NG59].2020 [Online] Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng59
  64. ↑ Wren AA, Wright MA, Carson JW, Keefe FJ. Yoga for persistent pain: new findings and directions for an ancient practice. Pain. 2011 Mar;152(3):477.
  65. ↑ Sorosky, S., Stilp, S. and Akuthota, V., Yoga and pilates in the management of low back pain. Current reviews in musculoskeletal medicine, 2008 1(1): 9-47.
  66. ↑ Daubenmier, J., Mehling, W., Price, C., Bartmess-Levasseur, E., Acree, M. and Stewart, A., Exploration of body awareness and pain and emotion regulation among yoga and meditation practitioners: does type of mind-body practice matter?. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 2012 12(1): 54.
  67. ↑ Costa, L.D.C.M., Maher, C.G., McAuley, J.H., Hancock, M.J., Herbert, R.D., Refshauge, K.M. and Henschke, N.. Prognosis for patients with chronic low back pain: inception cohort study. Bmj, 2009 339:3829.
  68. ↑ Brinzo, J.A., Crenshaw, J.T., Thomas, L. and Sapp, A., The effect of yoga on depression and pain in adult patients with chronic low back pain: a systematic review protocol. JBI database of systematic reviews and implementation reports, 2016: 14:56-66
  69. ↑ Pinheiro, M.B., Ferreira, M.L., Refshauge, K., Maher, C.G., Ordoñana, J.R., Andrade, T.B., Tsathas, A. and Ferreira, P.H., Symptoms of depression as a prognostic factor for low back pain: a systematic review. The Spine Journal, 2016: 16(1):105-116.
  70. ↑ Tran MD, Holly RG, Lashbrook J, Amsterdam EA. Effects of Hatha yoga practice on the health‐related aspects of physical fitness. Preventive cardiology. 2001 Oct;4(4):165-70.
  71. ↑ Schure MB, Christopher J, Christopher S. Mind–body medicine and the art of self‐care: teaching mindfulness to counseling students through yoga, meditation, and qigong. Journal of Counseling & Development. 2008 Jan;86(1):47-56.
  72. ↑ Foster NE, Anema JR, Cherkin D, Chou R, Cohen SP, Gross DP, Ferreira PH, Fritz JM, Koes BW, Peul W, Turner JA. Prevention and treatment of low back pain: evidence, challenges, and promising directions. The Lancet. 2018 Jun 9;391(10137):2368-83.
  73. ↑ Holtzman S, Beggs RT. Yoga for chronic low back pain: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain Research and Management. 2013 Oct;18(5):267-72.
  74. ↑ Sharma M, Haider T, Knowlde A.Yoga as an alternative and complementary treatment for cancer: a systematic review. J Altern Complement Med. 2013 Nov;19(11):870-5.
  75. ↑ Agarwal RP, Maroko A.Yoga into Cancer Care: A Review of the Evidence-based Research.Int J Yoga. 2018 Jan-Apr;11(1):3-29.
  76. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDS5YUdaidA&feature=emb_title
  77. ↑ Posadzki P, Parekh S. Yoga and physiotherapy: a speculative review and conceptual synthesis. Chinese journal of integrative medicine. 2009 Feb 1;15(1):66-72.
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