Ageing and Changes in Other Systems: Difference between revisions

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== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
[[File:Nursing home.jpg|right|frameless]]
[[File:Nursing home.jpg|right|frameless]]
Aging refers to the physiological changes that occur in the human body from the attainment of adulthood, and ending in death.
Ageing is a complex process that involves a decline in biological functions and is accompanied by psychological, behavioural, and other changes. <ref>Khan SS, Singer BD, Vaughan DE. Molecular and physiological manifestations and measurement of aging in humans. Aging cell. 2017 Aug;16(4):624-33.</ref>
* These changes involve a decline of biological functions, and are accompanied by psychological, behavioural, and other changes.<ref>Khan SS, Singer BD, Vaughan DE. Molecular and physiological manifestations and measurement of aging in humans. Aging cell. 2017 Aug;16(4):624-33.</ref>
* Some of these changes are quite obvious, while others are subtle.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1354293/human-aging</ref>


All cells experience changes with ageing, becoming larger and less able to divide and multiply. There is an increase in pigments, and vital organs begin to lose some function as we age. Ageing changes occur in all of the body's cells, tissues, and organs, and these changes affect the functioning of all body systems.
Some systems begin ageing as early as age 30, while other ageing processes are not common until much later in life. Unlike the changes of adolescence, which are predictable to within a few years, each person ages at a unique rate. Some signs of ageing can be seen from the outside, such as wrinkles and grey hair, while others are not visible.<ref>Britannica. Science & Tech. Available from:https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1354293/human-aging. (Accessed 01/18/24)</ref>
== Gastrointestinal System ==
== Gastrointestinal System ==
Changes Include:
[[File:Liver gif.gif|thumb]]
* Loss of teeth, dental caries (tooth decay), gingival recession with problems adapting to dentures and altered bite – any of these can affect appetite.
The gastrointestinal system extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the throat, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Changes in Gastrointestinal system with ageing includes:
* Atrophic changes in jaw, mucosae, intestinal glands and muscular (the thin layer of smooth muscle that forms part of a mucous membrane, as in the esophagus) with asymptomatic alterations in secretion, motility and absorption, and reduced surface area in the small bowel.
* The aging process can have significant effects on the gastrointestinal system, including changes in appetite, atrophic changes in the jaw, mucosae, intestinal glands, and muscular layers, liver impairments, oesophageal reflux, ulcerations, and conditions such as diverticulosis, and constipation.
* [[Liver Disease|Liver]] impairments suspected in the older people. Can lead to anorexia and malnutrition, defective absorption of iron and vitamins eg [[Vitamin B12 Deficiency|B12]], and to pernicious anaemia or iron deficient [[anaemia]] through chronic blood loss.
* Loss of teeth, dental caries (tooth decay), gingival recession with problems adapting to dentures and altered bite can affect appetite.
* Oesophageal reflux, ulcerations and conditions such as diverticulosis - can be issues.
* [[Liver Disease|Liver]] impairments suspected in the older people can lead to [[Anorexia Nervosa|anorexia]], malnutrition, defective absorption of iron and vitamins e.g. [[Vitamin B12 Deficiency|B12]], and to pernicious anaemia or iron deficient [[anaemia]] through chronic blood loss.
* Constipation often due to a combination of [[dehydration]], immobility and poor dietary roughage intake as compared to serious pathology.
* With aging, the strength of oesophageal contractions decreases, and lactase levels decrease, leading to intolerance of dairy products by many older adults.
* Gastrointestinal problems may lead to an altered [[Nutrition|nutritional]] status, so you will need to be aware of how much energy your treatment is using.
* Excessive growth of certain bacteria as a side effect of taking certain drugs can also cause diarrhea and poor absorption.
* Alterations in gut function with aging have particular implications for oesophageal, gastric, and colonic motility, and older individuals are particularly susceptible to gastrointestinal disorders.<ref>Soenen S, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. The ageing gastrointestinal tract. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2016 Jan;19(1):12-8. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0000000000000238. PMID: 26560524.
 
</ref>
* Gastrointestinal problems may lead to an altered [[Nutrition|nutritional]] status, so you will need to be aware of how much energy your treatment is using.<ref>Bhutto A, Morley JE. The clinical significance of gastrointestinal changes with aging. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008 Sep;11(5):651-60. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e32830b5d37. PMID: 18685464.
 
</ref>


== Homeostasis  ==
== Homeostasis  ==
Particularly vulnerable in old age to: plasma or [[Blood Physiology|blood]] loss; dehydration; [[Hypokalemia|potassium depletion]]; and [[Arterial Blood Gases|metabolic acidosis]].  
The aging process can make individuals particularly vulnerable to plasma or [[Blood Physiology|blood]] loss, dehydration, [[Hypokalemia|potassium depletion]], and [[Arterial Blood Gases|metabolic acidosis]].  
 
At rest, a person can maintain a constant internal environment, but capacity to react to [[Stress and Health|stress]]. In the elderly the response to the demands of daily living (a stress)is markedly lessened owing to two key characteristics of ageing:


1. Poverty of reserve which impairs the ability to restore systemic equilibrium quickly when it is upset.  
This vulnerability is due to the reduced capacity of the elderly to react to [[Stress and Health|stress]], as their ability to restore systemic equilibrium quickly when upset is impaired, and there is a breakdown in coordination because different organs age at different rates.  


2. Breakdown in co-ordination because different organs age at different rates hence functions dependent on the performance of several systems are therefore impaired. eg Temperature intolerance is an issue eg eg undress in a gym, may consider to be too cold; use of heat or ice as treatment modalities. If a patient ‘overheats’ and is unaware of the rising temperature, you may have a fainter on your hands.
This can lead to an altered nutritional status, making it important to be aware of the energy used during treatment.<ref>World Health Organization. Ageing and Health. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health. (Accessed 01/18/24)</ref>


== Endocrine System ==
== Endocrine System ==
[[File:Diabetes-528678 960 720.jpg|right|frameless]]
[[File:Diabetes-528678 960 720.jpg|right|frameless]]
Failure in the [[Endocrine System|endocrine system]] is not a consequence of normal [[Older People - An Introduction|ageing]], but as in other systems, poverty of reserves may precipitate evidence of deficiency.
The endocrine system undergoes significant changes with aging, which can affect hormone production and function. Some of the key changes in the endocrine system during aging include:
* Secretory capacity of pancreatic beta cells diminishes and abnormality of glucose tolerance increases with age.  
 
* The efficiency of insulin in dealing with excess glucose declines.  
# Decline in secretory capacity of pancreatic beta cells, leading to an increase in abnormal glucose tolerance.
* Functional thyroid activity declines with age.  
# Efficiency of insulin in dealing with excess glucose declines.
* Basal metabolic rate and radioactive iodine uptake fall.  
# Functional thyroid activity declines with age.
* Pituitary activity appears to be retained at normal levels with age, but adrenal activity is impaired.  
# Basal metabolic rate and radioactive iodine uptake fall.
Clinical disorders will include [[diabetes]], myxoedema (severe [[hypothyroidism]]) and thyrotoxicosis (the condition caused by excessive quantities of thyroid [[hormones]]).
# Pituitary activity appears to be retained at normal levels with age, but adrenal activity is impaired.
 
Clinical disorders associated with aging in the endocrine system include [[diabetes]], myxoedema (severe [[hypothyroidism]]), and thyrotoxicosis (the condition caused by excessive quantities of thyroid [[hormones]]).<ref>van den Beld AW, Kaufman JM, Zillikens MC, Lamberts SWJ, Egan JM, van der Lely AJ. The physiology of endocrine systems with ageing. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018 Aug;6(8):647-658. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30026-3. Epub 2018 Jul 17. PMID: 30017799; PMCID: PMC6089223</ref><ref>Chahal HS, Drake WM. The endocrine system and ageing. J Pathol. 2007 Jan;211(2):173-80. doi: 10.1002/path.2110. PMID: 17200939.</ref>
 
Aging-induced effects on the endocrine system are difficult to disentangle from the influence of other factors, such as chronic diseases, inflammation, and low nutritional status, which can also affect endocrine systems.


== Central autonomic dysfunction ==
== Central Autonomic Dysfunction ==
May contribute to: [[Orthostatic Hypotension|postural hypotension]]; impaired temperature control and the risk of hypothermia; loss of appreciation of visceral pain; and defective alimentary motility.
Central autonomic dysfunction can lead to various symptoms and conditions, including [[Orthostatic Hypotension|postural hypotension]], impaired temperature control, the risk of hypothermia, loss of appreciation of visceral pain, and defective alimentary motility.
 
This dysfunction can affect the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which controls basic functions such as heart rate, body temperature, breathing rate, digestion, and sensation.


== Immune system ==
== Immune system ==
The  [[Immune System|immune system]] has the enormous task of recognizing self from non-self. While the immune system does not weaken with age, it becomes slower to respond, increasing the risk of getting sick. 
[[File:Cells of the immune system.jpg|right|frameless]]
[[File:Cells of the immune system.jpg|right|frameless]]
The [[Immune System|immune system]] has the enormous task of recognising self from non-self.
Dysfunction in the immune system can accompany aging, which increases susceptibility to various diseases with different etiologies. Some of the changes in the immune system due to aging include:
* Not all components of the immune system may be equally affected by ageing, but dysfunction known to accompany ageing, increases susceptibility to a number of disabling diseases having different aetiologies.  
 
* Increasing incidence of tumourigenesis occurs with age.  
# Slower response: The immune system becomes slower to respond, increasing the risk of getting sick.
* Levels of circulating antibodies begin to decline, therefore [[Infectious Disease|infectious diseases]] occur more frequently and with greater consequences in older people, e.g. [[pneumonia]], [[influenza]], [[Urinary Tract Infection|urinary tract infections]].
# Increased vulnerability to infections: Levels of circulating antibodies begin to decline, leading to more frequent and severe infections in older individuals, such as pneumonia, influenza, and urinary tract infections.
# Increased risk of cancer: The aging immune system loses the ability to protect against infections and cancer, which can contribute to the increasing incidence of tumorigenesis.
# Chronic inflammation: Aging is associated with low-grade inflammation, which can contribute to age-related chronic diseases.
 
It is essential to maintain a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and sufficient sleep, to support the immune system as it ages.<ref>Weyand, C. M., & Goronzy, J. J. (2016). Aging of the Immune System. Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets. ''Annals of the American Thoracic Society'', ''13''(Suppl 5), S422. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201602-095AW</nowiki></ref><ref>Montecino-Rodriguez, E., Berent-Maoz, B., & Dorshkind, K. (2013). Causes, consequences, and reversal of immune system aging. ''The Journal of Clinical Investigation'', ''123''(3), 958-965. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI64096</nowiki></ref>
 
== Aging and Cardiorespiratory System ==
[[File:Heart 3D.jpg|thumb]]
Aging has a direct effect on the cardiorespiratory system, affecting the structure and function of the cardiovascular system. With aging, there is a gradual occurrence of hypertrophy of the heart, making it less responsive to sympathetic stimuli. This leads to a blunted exercise-induced heart rate rise and myocardial contractility.
 
The physiologic changes that occur due to aging, such as increased stiffness of the arterial system, lead to left ventricle hypertrophy, increased afterload on the left ventricle, and an increase in systolic blood pressure. These age-related changes set the stage for isolated systemic hypertension, diastolic dysfunction, and heart failure.<ref>Heart Health and Aging | National Institute on Aging (nih.gov) Accessed from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/heart-health/heart-health-and-aging on 11/1/24</ref>


== Aging and Cardio Respiratory system ==
Changes in the respiratory system due to aging mainly involve:
[[Ageing and the Cardiorespiratory System|Aging has a direct effect on the cardiorespiratory system]]. It affects the structure and function of the cardiovascular system.


Gradually there occurs hypertrophy of the heart and it becomes less responsive to sympathetic stimuli due to this reason, exercise induced heart rate rise and myocardial contractility gets blunted.<ref>Ferrari AU, Radaelli A, Centola M. Invited review: aging and the cardiovascular system. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2003 Dec;95(6):2591-7.</ref>
* Decrease in chest wall compliance
* Respiratory muscle strength
* Ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia
* Sensation of dyspnea
* Increase in air trapping and alveolar dead space<ref>North BJ, Sinclair DA. [https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/circresaha.111.246876 The intersection between aging and cardiovascular disease]. Circulation research. 2012 Apr 13;110(8):1097-108.</ref>


The physiologic changes that happen due to aging are increased stiffness of the arterial system. This leads to left ventricle hypertrophy, increased after load on the left ventricle, and an increase in systolic blood pressure. All the age related changes set a stage for isolated systemic hypertension, diastolic dysfunction and heart failure.<ref>Cheitlin MD. Cardiovascular physiology—changes with aging. The American journal of geriatric cardiology. 2003 Jan;12(1):9-13.</ref>
== Aging and Locomotor System ==
Research has proven that [[Ageing and the Locomotor System|locomotion]] is affected as the person advances his age. The muscles, bone and joints are affected as the person ages. The force production of lower limb muscles diminishes especially the calf muscles hence in compensation the proximal muscles such as that of the hip joint have to work more. There is a so-called distal to proximal shift in the joint power in old people while walking.<ref>Kulmala JP, Korhonen MT, Kuitunen S, Suominen H, Heinonen A, Mikkola A, Avela J. Which muscles compromise human locomotor performance with age?. Journal of the Royal Society interface. 2014 Nov 6;11(100):20140858.</ref>Studies have shown reduced long extensor muscle strength and tendon stiffness in aged individuals.


== Ageing and Locomotor System ==
There are various [[Postural Changes Affecting Voice Production|postural]] changes that occur as a person advances his age. The angle of thoracic kyphosis increases with age and it results in a hyperkyphotic curve. In compensation, the forward head posture is developed. It results in impaired cervical proprioception, vestibular deficits, and increased fall risk.<ref>Migliarese S, White E. Review of forward-head posture and vestibular deficits in older adults. Current Geriatrics Reports. 2019 Sep;8(3):194-201.</ref>
Research has proven that [[Ageing and the Locomotor System|locomotion]] is affected as the person advances his age. The force production of lower limb muscles diminishes especially the calf muscles hence in compensation the proximal muscles such as that of the hip joint have to work more. There is a so-called distal to proximal shift in the joint power in old people while walking.<ref>Kulmala JP, Korhonen MT, Kuitunen S, Suominen H, Heinonen A, Mikkola A, Avela J. Which muscles compromise human locomotor performance with age?. Journal of the Royal Society interface. 2014 Nov 6;11(100):20140858.</ref>Studies have shown reduced long extensor muscle strength and tendon stiffness in aged individuals.


There are various postural changes that occur as a person advances his age. The angle of thoracic kyphosis increases with age and it results in a hyperkyphotic curve. In compensation, the forward head posture is developed. It results in impaired cervical proprioception, vestibular deficits, and increased fall risk.<ref>Migliarese S, White E. Review of forward-head posture and vestibular deficits in older adults. Current Geriatrics Reports. 2019 Sep;8(3):194-201.</ref>  
[[Balance]] is also affected as a person ages.  the sensorimotor function gets declined. The vision, cognition, strength, somatosensation and vestibular functions worsen.<ref>Wagner AR, Akinsola O, Chaudhari AM, Bigelow KE, Merfeld DM. Measuring vestibular contributions to age-related balance impairment: a review. Frontiers in neurology. 2021 Feb 9;12:635305.</ref>  


== Resources ==
== References ==
{{pdf|Ageing_changes_in_other_systems.pdf|Ageing and Changes in Other Systems}}References<references />
<references />
[[Category:Older People/Geriatrics]]
[[Category:Older People/Geriatrics]]
[[Category:Older People/Geriatrics - Assessment and Examination]]
[[Category:Older People/Geriatrics - Assessment and Examination]]
[[Category:Balance]]
[[Category:Vestibular System]]
[[Category:Cardiovascular Disease]]
[[Category:Gait]]

Latest revision as of 19:18, 17 January 2024

Introduction[edit | edit source]

Nursing home.jpg

Ageing is a complex process that involves a decline in biological functions and is accompanied by psychological, behavioural, and other changes. [1]

All cells experience changes with ageing, becoming larger and less able to divide and multiply. There is an increase in pigments, and vital organs begin to lose some function as we age. Ageing changes occur in all of the body's cells, tissues, and organs, and these changes affect the functioning of all body systems.

Some systems begin ageing as early as age 30, while other ageing processes are not common until much later in life. Unlike the changes of adolescence, which are predictable to within a few years, each person ages at a unique rate. Some signs of ageing can be seen from the outside, such as wrinkles and grey hair, while others are not visible.[2]

Gastrointestinal System[edit | edit source]

Liver gif.gif

The gastrointestinal system extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the throat, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Changes in Gastrointestinal system with ageing includes:

  • The aging process can have significant effects on the gastrointestinal system, including changes in appetite, atrophic changes in the jaw, mucosae, intestinal glands, and muscular layers, liver impairments, oesophageal reflux, ulcerations, and conditions such as diverticulosis, and constipation.
  • Loss of teeth, dental caries (tooth decay), gingival recession with problems adapting to dentures and altered bite can affect appetite.
  • Liver impairments suspected in the older people can lead to anorexia, malnutrition, defective absorption of iron and vitamins e.g. B12, and to pernicious anaemia or iron deficient anaemia through chronic blood loss.
  • With aging, the strength of oesophageal contractions decreases, and lactase levels decrease, leading to intolerance of dairy products by many older adults.
  • Excessive growth of certain bacteria as a side effect of taking certain drugs can also cause diarrhea and poor absorption.
  • Alterations in gut function with aging have particular implications for oesophageal, gastric, and colonic motility, and older individuals are particularly susceptible to gastrointestinal disorders.[3]
  • Gastrointestinal problems may lead to an altered nutritional status, so you will need to be aware of how much energy your treatment is using.[4]

Homeostasis[edit | edit source]

The aging process can make individuals particularly vulnerable to plasma or blood loss, dehydration, potassium depletion, and metabolic acidosis.

This vulnerability is due to the reduced capacity of the elderly to react to stress, as their ability to restore systemic equilibrium quickly when upset is impaired, and there is a breakdown in coordination because different organs age at different rates.

This can lead to an altered nutritional status, making it important to be aware of the energy used during treatment.[5]

Endocrine System[edit | edit source]

Diabetes-528678 960 720.jpg

The endocrine system undergoes significant changes with aging, which can affect hormone production and function. Some of the key changes in the endocrine system during aging include:

  1. Decline in secretory capacity of pancreatic beta cells, leading to an increase in abnormal glucose tolerance.
  2. Efficiency of insulin in dealing with excess glucose declines.
  3. Functional thyroid activity declines with age.
  4. Basal metabolic rate and radioactive iodine uptake fall.
  5. Pituitary activity appears to be retained at normal levels with age, but adrenal activity is impaired.

Clinical disorders associated with aging in the endocrine system include diabetes, myxoedema (severe hypothyroidism), and thyrotoxicosis (the condition caused by excessive quantities of thyroid hormones).[6][7]

Aging-induced effects on the endocrine system are difficult to disentangle from the influence of other factors, such as chronic diseases, inflammation, and low nutritional status, which can also affect endocrine systems.

Central Autonomic Dysfunction[edit | edit source]

Central autonomic dysfunction can lead to various symptoms and conditions, including postural hypotension, impaired temperature control, the risk of hypothermia, loss of appreciation of visceral pain, and defective alimentary motility.

This dysfunction can affect the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which controls basic functions such as heart rate, body temperature, breathing rate, digestion, and sensation.

Immune system[edit | edit source]

The immune system has the enormous task of recognizing self from non-self. While the immune system does not weaken with age, it becomes slower to respond, increasing the risk of getting sick.

Cells of the immune system.jpg

Dysfunction in the immune system can accompany aging, which increases susceptibility to various diseases with different etiologies. Some of the changes in the immune system due to aging include:

  1. Slower response: The immune system becomes slower to respond, increasing the risk of getting sick.
  2. Increased vulnerability to infections: Levels of circulating antibodies begin to decline, leading to more frequent and severe infections in older individuals, such as pneumonia, influenza, and urinary tract infections.
  3. Increased risk of cancer: The aging immune system loses the ability to protect against infections and cancer, which can contribute to the increasing incidence of tumorigenesis.
  4. Chronic inflammation: Aging is associated with low-grade inflammation, which can contribute to age-related chronic diseases.

It is essential to maintain a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and sufficient sleep, to support the immune system as it ages.[8][9]

Aging and Cardiorespiratory System[edit | edit source]

Heart 3D.jpg

Aging has a direct effect on the cardiorespiratory system, affecting the structure and function of the cardiovascular system. With aging, there is a gradual occurrence of hypertrophy of the heart, making it less responsive to sympathetic stimuli. This leads to a blunted exercise-induced heart rate rise and myocardial contractility.

The physiologic changes that occur due to aging, such as increased stiffness of the arterial system, lead to left ventricle hypertrophy, increased afterload on the left ventricle, and an increase in systolic blood pressure. These age-related changes set the stage for isolated systemic hypertension, diastolic dysfunction, and heart failure.[10]

Changes in the respiratory system due to aging mainly involve:

  • Decrease in chest wall compliance
  • Respiratory muscle strength
  • Ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia
  • Sensation of dyspnea
  • Increase in air trapping and alveolar dead space[11]

Aging and Locomotor System[edit | edit source]

Research has proven that locomotion is affected as the person advances his age. The muscles, bone and joints are affected as the person ages. The force production of lower limb muscles diminishes especially the calf muscles hence in compensation the proximal muscles such as that of the hip joint have to work more. There is a so-called distal to proximal shift in the joint power in old people while walking.[12]Studies have shown reduced long extensor muscle strength and tendon stiffness in aged individuals.

There are various postural changes that occur as a person advances his age. The angle of thoracic kyphosis increases with age and it results in a hyperkyphotic curve. In compensation, the forward head posture is developed. It results in impaired cervical proprioception, vestibular deficits, and increased fall risk.[13]

Balance is also affected as a person ages. the sensorimotor function gets declined. The vision, cognition, strength, somatosensation and vestibular functions worsen.[14]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. Khan SS, Singer BD, Vaughan DE. Molecular and physiological manifestations and measurement of aging in humans. Aging cell. 2017 Aug;16(4):624-33.
  2. Britannica. Science & Tech. Available from:https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1354293/human-aging. (Accessed 01/18/24)
  3. Soenen S, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. The ageing gastrointestinal tract. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2016 Jan;19(1):12-8. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0000000000000238. PMID: 26560524.
  4. Bhutto A, Morley JE. The clinical significance of gastrointestinal changes with aging. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008 Sep;11(5):651-60. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e32830b5d37. PMID: 18685464.
  5. World Health Organization. Ageing and Health. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health. (Accessed 01/18/24)
  6. van den Beld AW, Kaufman JM, Zillikens MC, Lamberts SWJ, Egan JM, van der Lely AJ. The physiology of endocrine systems with ageing. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018 Aug;6(8):647-658. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30026-3. Epub 2018 Jul 17. PMID: 30017799; PMCID: PMC6089223
  7. Chahal HS, Drake WM. The endocrine system and ageing. J Pathol. 2007 Jan;211(2):173-80. doi: 10.1002/path.2110. PMID: 17200939.
  8. Weyand, C. M., & Goronzy, J. J. (2016). Aging of the Immune System. Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets. Annals of the American Thoracic Society, 13(Suppl 5), S422. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201602-095AW
  9. Montecino-Rodriguez, E., Berent-Maoz, B., & Dorshkind, K. (2013). Causes, consequences, and reversal of immune system aging. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 123(3), 958-965. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI64096
  10. Heart Health and Aging | National Institute on Aging (nih.gov) Accessed from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/heart-health/heart-health-and-aging on 11/1/24
  11. North BJ, Sinclair DA. The intersection between aging and cardiovascular disease. Circulation research. 2012 Apr 13;110(8):1097-108.
  12. Kulmala JP, Korhonen MT, Kuitunen S, Suominen H, Heinonen A, Mikkola A, Avela J. Which muscles compromise human locomotor performance with age?. Journal of the Royal Society interface. 2014 Nov 6;11(100):20140858.
  13. Migliarese S, White E. Review of forward-head posture and vestibular deficits in older adults. Current Geriatrics Reports. 2019 Sep;8(3):194-201.
  14. Wagner AR, Akinsola O, Chaudhari AM, Bigelow KE, Merfeld DM. Measuring vestibular contributions to age-related balance impairment: a review. Frontiers in neurology. 2021 Feb 9;12:635305.