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Sepsis

Original Editors - Leana Louw

Top Contributors - Lucinda hampton, Leana Louw, Rachael Lowe, Uchechukwu Chukwuemeka, Kim Jackson, Admin, Aminat Abolade, Carina Therese Magtibay and Janine van Dyk

Introduction

Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis is a syndrome, with a poorly understood pathogenesis, causing life-threatening organ dysfunction[1]. Sepsis occurs when the body's response to this infection is overwhelming, potentially leading to organ failure and septic shock. It is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates, being a final common pathway to death from many infectious diseases worldwide.[2][3][4] Sepsis needs urgent treatment as it can quickly worsen.[5]

Epidemiology

The worldwide burden of sepsis is hard to establish.

  • A 2017 study estimated sepsis accounted for almost 20% of all global deaths, with 48.9 million cases and 11 million sepsis-related deaths worldwide (twice that thought previously).[6]
  • Almost half of all global sepsis cases occurred among children in 2017.[6]
  • Roughly 85% of sepsis cases and sepsis-related deaths worldwide occur in low- and middle-income countries.[6]
  • In the United States approximately 270,000 deaths annually.[7][4]

Etiology

Sepsis occurs when the body's response to this infection turns on the body, potentially leading to organ failure and septic shock.[8] The 2009 European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC II study) determined that gram-negative bacterial infections far exceed other etiologies as the most common cause of sepsis syndromes with a frequency of 62%, followed by gram-positive infections at 47%.[9] 80% of sepsis cases are the result of the following infections:[10]Chest (e.g. pneumonia), abdomen, genitourinary system and primarily bloodstream

View this 3-minute video titled "Sepsis and Septic Shock, Animation."

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[11]

Risk Populations

Pathological Process

Sepsis results when an infectious insult precipitates a localized inflammatory reaction that goes on to cause systemic symptoms of fever or hypothermia, tachycardia, tachypnea, and leukocytosis or leukopenia (a clinical symptom called systemic inflammatory response syndrome). The inflammatory reaction is mediated by the release of cytokines which activate the extrinsic coagulation cascade and inhibit fibrinolysis. This upshot is that microvascular thrombosis is a potential organ dysfunction factor. Sepsis is a complex syndrome involving the activation of a variety of systems.[12][1]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms of sepsis: This could be non-specific and may include:

  • Localising symptoms of infection (e.g. productive cough, vomiting, diarrhoea, dysuria)
  • Drowsiness
  • Confusion
  • Dizziness
  • Malaise

Clinical signs of sepsis may include:

Watch this 2-minute video "How to recognize sepsis symptoms"

Prognosis

Septic shock is a serious illness and despite all the advances in medicine, it still carries high mortality which can exceed 40%.

  • Mortality does depend on many factors including the type of organism, antibiotic sensitivity, number of organs affected, and patient age.
  • The more factors that match systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), the higher the mortality.
  • Data suggest that tachypnea and altered mental status are excellent predictors of poor outcomes.
  • Prolonged use of inotropes to maintain blood pressure is also associated with adverse outcomes.
  • Those who survive are left with significant functional and cognitive deficits[9].

Diagnostic Procedures

Prompt recognition and escalation to a senior medical officer improves sepsis outcomes.[14] The guidelines recommend the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (original and quick versions) as an important tool for early diagnosis.[7]

  • Blood tests: The test are for proof of infection; clotting issues; abnormal liver or kidney function; impaired oxygen availability, arterial blood gases, and electrolyte imbalances
  • Other lab tests may be used to help identify the source of the infection: Urine, wound secretion, and respiratory secretions.
  • If the site of infection is not readily found other imaging tests including X-ray. CT, MRI and ultrasounds may be ordered.[8]

Medical Management

Identifying and recognising the signs and symptoms of sepsis, along with the awareness of some biomarkers (eg. C-reactive protein), are critical elements for diagnosing sepsis and instituting appropriate management. After early recognition and diagnostics, identifying a causal pathogen of infection targeted antimicrobial treatment can commence. Prompt fluid resuscitation will improve volume status. Vasopressors may be needed to help maintain tissue perfusion. Repeated exams and assessments, including monitoring vital signs, guide the appropriate management of sepsis over time. [4]The video below also gives a visual insight into managing sepsis in the ICU.

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Physiotherapy Management

See the page for the role of physiotherapy in the ICU.

  • Physiotherapy interventions in the ICU settings normally consist of respiratory physiotherapy focusing on airway clearance techniques and early mobilization. During acute sepsis or septic shock, patients are often too unstable for physiotherapy intervention, which only starts when the patient is haemodynamically stable.
  • Positioning plays a big role in the management of patients with sepsis. A heads-up position of 30-45 degrees is recommended to decrease the risk of aspiration pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia, where prone positioning is recommended in sepsis-induced ARDS with a PF ratio of less than 150.[15]
  • A common result of these is critical illness neuropathy. Extensive rehabilitation should then be incorporated in the ICU, after discharge to the ward, as well as in the out-patient setting to get the patient back to his baseline level of function and participation as per the ICF model.

Resources

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Guarino M, Perna B, Cesaro AE, Maritati M, Spampinato MD, Contini C, De Giorgio R. 2023 Update on Sepsis and Septic Shock in Adult Patients: Management in the Emergency Department. J Clin Med. 2023 Apr 28;12(9):3188. doi: 10.3390/jcm12093188.
  2. ↑ Nickson C. Sepsis Definitions and Diagnosis. Life in the Fast Lane; 2020. Available from:https://litfl.com/sepsis-definitions-and-diagnosis/ (accessed 16 October 2024)
  3. ↑ Zhang W, Zheng Y, Feng X, Chen M, Kang Y. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome in Sepsis-3: a retrospective study. BMC infectious diseases. 2019 Dec;19(1):1-0.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 World health organisation Sepsis Available from:https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sepsis [Accessed 16th October 2024]
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 NICE Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management Available from:https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51/ifp/chapter/What-is-sepsis [Accessed 16th October 2024)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, Shackelford KA, Tsoi D, Kievlan DR, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990–2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet. 2020 Jan 18;395(10219):200-11.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Gauer R, Forbes D, Boyer N. Sepsis: diagnosis and management. American family physician. 2020 Apr 1;101(7):409-18.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 MAYO clinic Sepsis Available from:https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sepsis/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20351219 (accessed 16 October 2024)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mahapatra S, Heffner AC. Septic Shock (Sepsis). InStatPearls [Internet] 2023. StatPearls Publishing. Available from:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430939/ ( accessed 16 October 2024)
  10. ↑ Annane D, Bellissant E, Cavaillon JM. Septic shock. The Lancet 2005;365(9453):63-78.
  11. ↑ Alila medical media. Sepsis and Septic Shock, Animation.. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-MXi4mOMmI4 [last accessed 31.12.2022]
  12. ↑ Jacobi J. Pathophysiology of sepsis. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2002;59(1):S3-8. doi:10.1093/ajhp/59.suppl_1.S3.
  13. ↑ Geeky medics Sepsis Available from:https://geekymedics.com/acute-management-of-sepsis/ (accessed 16 October 2024)
  14. ↑ Queensland Government Sepsis Available from:https://clinicalexcellence.qld.gov.au/priority-areas/safety-and-quality/sepsis/recognition-and-treatment [Accessed 16th October 2024]
  15. ↑ Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, Levy MM, Antonelli M, Ferrer R, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for the management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive care medicine 2017;43(3):304-77.
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