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Popliteus Tendinopathy

(Redirected from Popliteus Tendinitis)

Original Editors - Leen Vandereycken as part of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel's Evidence-based Practice project

Top Contributors - Francky Petit, Leen Vandereycken, Malisha van der Berg, Fasuba Ayobami, Admin, Rachael Lowe, Kim Jackson, Vidya Acharya, Evan Thomas, Ans Huys, Wanda van Niekerk, Rana Muhammad Tahir Aslam, Daphne Jackson, Ine Van de Weghe, Lisa De Donder, 127.0.0.1, Simisola Ajeyalemi, Redisha Jakibanjar and Alexandra Stead

Page Summary

  • Popliteus tendinopathy is an uncommon, often overlooked cause of posterolateral knee pain, typically worse with downhill running or walking, stairs and decelerating activities.
  • The popliteus tendon arises from the lateral femoral condyle, passes deep to the lateral collateral ligament (LCL) and helps stabilise the posterolateral knee.
  • Diagnosis relies mainly on history and examination, as no clinical test is validated, with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) used when findings are unclear.
  • Management centres on education, load modification and progressive strengthening rather than rest, and most people recover well, although evidence is largely drawn from other tendinopathies.

Introduction

The popliteus is a small but important stabiliser of the knee. Disorders of its tendon are an underrecognised cause of lateral and posterior knee pain.[1] Popliteus tendinopathy is relatively uncommon and research specific to it is limited, so much of its management is drawn from evidence in other tendinopathies.[2]

This page outlines the anatomy, presentation, assessment and management of popliteus tendinopathy, along with the main conditions to consider in the differential diagnosis.

Definition/Description

Popliteus tendinopathy is a painful condition of the popliteus tendon at the posterolateral knee. It causes impaired function and reduced tolerance to load.[1][2] It sits within a wider group of popliteal disorders that also includes acute strains and tears, avulsions, calcific tendinopathy, tenosynovitis and tendon sheath ganglia.[1]

The terminology has changed as understanding of tendon structures has grown. "Tendinitis" assumed that inflammation was the main process.[3][4] "Tendinosis" reflected a later view that the condition was purely degenerative, when no immune cells could be found in the affected tendon.[4] "Tendinopathy" is now preferred as a neutral clinical term because inflammation, degeneration and vascular processes all appear to contribute.[3][4] Tenosynovitis, which is inflammation of the tendon sheath, is a related but separate diagnosis.

Popliteus tendinopathy is considered uncommon and often overlooked.[2] It is seen mainly in active people, particularly in downhill runners or in sports that involves rotation and deceleration. Sports including:[2]

  • Trail runners
  • Ballet
  • Football
  • Rugby
  • Basketball
  • Skiing

Clinically Relevant Anatomy

The popliteus is a small, flat, triangular muscle that forms the floor of the popliteal fossa. Its tendon forms part of the posterolateral corner of the knee.[5]

Attachment

Its attachments and course are described below. By convention, the tendinous femoral attachment is called the origin and the muscular tibial attachment the insertion, although some authors describe them the other way round.[6]

Popliteus Muscle
  • The tendon arises from the popliteal sulcus on the lateral femoral condyle, just distal to the lateral epicondyle and close to the origin of the lateral collateral ligament (LCL).[7]
  • It passes deep to the lateral collateral ligament (LCL) and through the popliteal hiatus. It lies inside the joint capsule but outside the synovium.[8]
  • Along its course it attaches to the posterior capsule, to the lateral meniscus through the popliteomeniscal fascicles, and to the fibular head through the popliteofibular ligament.[8]
  • The muscle inserts on the posterior surface of the proximal tibia, above the soleal line.[8]
  • It is supplied by the tibial nerve.[6]

The tendon's anatomy varies considerably between people. There are four main types based on the number of tendons in the popliteal sulcus and the presence of accessory bands:[5]

  1. Type I: Single tendon (the most common type, found in about a third of limbs)
  2. Type II: Single popliteus tendon accompanied by one or more accessory fibrous bands (found in about 30.6% of cases, further divided into five subtypes A–E)
  3. Type III: a Bifid tendon or 2 separate tendons running within the popliteal sulcus (found in about 15.3% to 15.7% of cases).
  4. Type IV: Two tendons in the popliteal sulcus combined with additional accessory bands (found in about 19.4% of cases, further divided into five subtypes A–E)

Function

The popliteus acts as both a dynamic and a static stabiliser of the knee.[9]

Its main functions are listed below.

  • In open chain or during swing phase of walking it internally rotates the tibia on the femur.[9]
  • In closed chain or stance phase of gait (when the foot is in contact with the ground) it externally rotates the femur on the tibia, which "unlocks" the fully extended knee at the start of flexion.[2][8]
  • It resists external rotation and posterior translation of the tibia and gives some varus support.[2][10]
  • It draws the lateral meniscus backwards during flexion.[8]

The tendon is an important static stabiliser and described as the "fifth ligament" of the knee.[11]

Epidemiology /Aetiology

Data on how often popliteus tendinopathy occurs are lacking.[2] The available figures are summarised below.

  • In a series of 2,412 consecutive knee MRI scans, popliteus injuries were found in about 1%, and most involved the muscle rather than the tendon.[2]
  • Isolated popliteus injuries make up only about 10% of posterolateral corner injuries. Most occur alongside injuries to other posterolateral, cruciate or meniscal structures.[10]

Professional dancers may be particularly susceptible. In a professional folk dance company of 82 members, about half sought care for pain over a seven-year period. Among the 25 dancers who did an MRI, 17 presented with knee pathology with popliteus tendinitis the leading cause.[2][12]

Several factors may contribute to popliteus tendinopathy. They are listed below:

  • Repetitive loading during downhill running or walking, stairs and other decelerating activities. This happens particularly when the quadriceps are fatigued.[2][13]
  • Repeated movements that combine varus force with external tibial rotation, or sudden hyperextension with internal tibial rotation, as in dance turnout.[2]
  • Excessive foot pronation.[2]
  • Sudden increases in training load or training errors that includes incorrect biomechanics.[4]
  • Systemic factors that impair tendon health, such as obesity, diabetes, raised cholesterol, inflammatory arthritis and some medications (fluoroquinolones).[4]
  • Previous knee surgery, particularly total knee arthroplasty, where the tendon can impinge on implant components or osteophytes.[7]

Acute traumatic popliteus injuries follow a different aetiology, where forced external rotation of the tibia on a partially flexed knee or a direct blow to the lateral aspect of the knee can cause a strain or avulsion of the tendon from the lateral femoral condyle.[10]

Pathophysiology

Tendinopathy develops when repeated loading exceeds the tendon's capacity to repair itself.[14] Mechanical stress, inflammation and vascular change interact and reinforce each other.[4] The main tissue changes are listed below:

  • Influx of immune cells and inflammatory mediators.[15]
  • Ingrowth of blood vessels and nerves, which may contribute to pain.[4]
  • Breakdown of extracellular matrix.[4]
  • Increased proteoglycan and water content, with a shift towards type III collagen.[4] [15]

The continuum model, shown in video below, describes reactive, disrepair and degenerative stages.

[16]

The continuum model is a useful clinical guide, however, it lacks longitudinal evidence and biomarkers to separate the stages reliably.[4]

Tendon healing passes through three phases:[15]

  1. Inflammatory phase in the first week
  2. Proliferative phase from one to four weeks
  3. Remodelling phase that begins around four weeks and continues for months.

In animal studies, healed tendon had still not regained normal mechanical properties after up to 12 months. Controlled loading during healing improves tendon strength and collagen organisation.[15]

It is important to note that both overloading and under loading the tendon are harmful, and complete rest disrupts the signalling that keeps the tendon healthy.[4][14]

Clinical Presentation

The typical features of popliteus tendinopathy are listed below: [2]

  • Persistent posterolateral knee pain, usually near the tendon's attachment on the lateral femoral condyle.
  • Pain that is worse with downhill running or walking, stairs and other decelerating activities.
  • Pain with deep knee flexion in some patients.[7] [8]
  • Tenderness over the posterolateral knee, with pain on passive internal or external rotation of the tibia.
  • Possible posterior knee pain in the initial swing phase of gait.
  • A tender nodule, in cases of calcific tendinopathy.

Differential Diagnosis

The diagnosis should largely be established following a careful analysis of the case history and a thorough physical examination.

Posterolateral knee pain has many possible causes, and popliteus pathology is often missed.[1] The main conditions to consider are listed below:

Diagnostic Procedures

Diagnosis rests mainly on history and clinical examination, imaging only used when the examination is unclear.[2]

Main investigations are summarised in table below with videos shown where available

Investigation Method Description
Radiographs Are typically normal, however, may show calcification, osteophytes or an avulsed bone fragment.[10]
[18]
Ultrasound May show fluid around the tendon in the popliteal groove (a "bulls-eye" sign) or splits in the tendon. Because the tendon curves, it is prone to anisotropy, so tears can be overcalled.[2]

[19]

MRI Gives the most complete picture. It shows tendon pathology, separates partial from complete tears and assesses the meniscus and other intra-articular structures. [1][2]

[20]

Outcome measures

Pain and disability scores are the most used outcome measures in tendinopathy research.[21] No outcome measure has been validated specifically for popliteus tendinopathy. Suitable options that can be used are listed below.

  • Numerical pain rating scale or Visual analogue scale (VAS) during a provocative task. Such as a single-leg squat or stair descent, that can also guide loading decisions.[22]
  • The Patient-Specific Functional Scale, to track activities that matter to the individual.
  • The Lysholm Knee Score, as a general measure of knee function.
  • Strength testing of the knee and hip muscles, compared with the non-affected side.[22]

Examination

A thorough knee examination helps confirm the source of pain and exclude other conditions. The key components are listed in the table below, with demonstration videos where available.

Examination Description
Palpation of Popliteus Tendon Supine: Palpation of the tendon at the posterolateral joint line in the figure-4 position, with the hip flexed, abducted and externally rotated, the knee flexed, and the ankle resting on the opposite knee.[2]

Prone: Palpate posterolateral and medial to the biceps femoris tendon at the posterior joint line.[10]

[23]

Popliteal muscle testing Supine popliteal muscle test, knee flexed 5-10 degrees, hip stabilised with resisted tibia external rotation.    

[24]

Active and Passive rotation of the tibia Seated/ Supine internal and external rotation of the tibia.[4]

[25]

Garrick Test Performed in supine with the hip and knee flexed to 90°. Descriptions vary between sources. Some describe it as pain on resisted external rotation of the tibia,[2] while others describe pain with resisted internal rotation or passive external rotation.[10] As the popliteus internally rotates the tibia, the second version is the more logical provocation. The test, however has not been shown to be reliable.[10]

[26]

Ligament Tests Dial test and varus stress testing, to exclude posterolateral corner instability.[10]
Meniscal tests McMurray meniscal test to help exclude a lateral meniscus tear.[1]
Wider kinetic chain assessment Hip and knee strength, foot posture, range of movement and movement quality during squatting, stairs and running.[22]

Medical Management

Most patients are managed conservatively with exercise-based rehabilitation.[2] Medical options are used mainly to ease pain or when rehabilitation has not worked. They are summarised below.

  • Simple analgesia or a short course of NSAIDs may help with pain, particularly in reactive presentations, but does not treat the underlying tendon problem.[1]
  • Corticosteroid injection may be considered for refractory cases, calcific tendinopathy or a tendon sheath ganglion.[8] This evidence comes from case reports, and injection should be combined with rehabilitation.[8]
  • Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has not been studied in popliteus tendinopathy. A meta-analysis of 33 randomised trials in other tendinopathies found ultrasound-guided PRP was no better than control injections, with low to very low certainty of evidence.[27]
  • Surgery is rarely needed. Arthroscopic debridement is preferred for ruptures and avulsions. Open surgery is reserved for complete extra-articular tears or secondary causes such as tendon sheath synovitis.[2]
  • After total knee arthroplasty, arthroscopic popliteus tenotomy can relieve pain from tendon impingement in carefully selected patients, with no reported instability. This evidence comes from only 26 cases in case reports and series.[7]

Physical Therapy Management

Rehabilitation should aim to restore efficient movement patterns that are natural to the individual.[28] Positions of excessive genu varum or valgum should be avoided, as these increase stress on the posterolateral knee. Rapid loading should be introduced cautiously in patients with poor dynamic lower limb postural control.[28]

The purpose is to reduce pain, as well as improving functionality of the knee. A large evidence synthesis found exercise therapy safe and beneficial for tendinopathy management.[21]

Education and Load Management

Initial management combines education with modifying aggravating activities, not complete rest.[14] The main elements are listed below:

  • Explain the condition, the expected recovery time and the role of exercise. Education and support for self-management improve engagement with treatment.[21]
  • Reduce aggravating activities such as downhill running and walking, and avoid sudden increases in training.[4]
  • Maintain fitness with lower-load activities such as cycling, or pool-based exercise, which reduces load through the knee.[17]
  • Address contributing factors such as excessive foot pronation, using footwear advice or orthoses where appropriate.[2]
  • For acute presentations, use the PEACE and LOVE principles as a framework for early soft tissue care.[29]
  • A hinged brace may give short-term symptom relief.[2] Prolonged immobilisation should be avoided because underloading harms tendon tissue.[14]

Pain Monitoring

Pain monitoring helps guide the rate of progression. Suggested approach is outlined below:[22]

  • Pain of up to 3/10 during exercise is acceptable if it settles within 24 hours and is not worse the next day.
  • If pain rises above 5/10 during exercise or lasts more than 24 hours, reduce the load or volume and avoid compressive positions.

Exercise Dosage

Evidence from other tendinopathies helps guide exercise dosage. The key findings are listed below:

  • Exercise with added external resistance gives larger benefit than body-weight exercise alone.[30]
  • Strengthening performed every other day (not daily), appears more effective than daily or more frequent training.[30]
  • Combining concentric and eccentric work may be more effective than eccentric exercise alone.[21]
  • Exercise combined with another conservative treatment may give an additional benefit.[21]

Phased Rehabilitation

A phased rehabilitation programme for tendinopathy is proposed.[22]

Programme adapted for the popliteus is set out below, progression should depend on meeting the criteria for each phase rather than on time.[22]

Pain and Load Management

Use isometric holds to settle pain and maintain muscle activation. Examples include;

  • Resisted tibial internal rotation in sitting,  
  • Quadriceps and hamstring holds, with the knee in mid-range and away from deep flexion.

A typical prescription is five holds of 45 to 60 seconds at moderate effort, two or three times a day. These daily holds are mainly for pain relief, while strength sessions are spaced further apart. Progress when pain during daily activities is 3/10 or less.[22]

Strengthening

Introduce slow resistance exercise for the quadriceps, hamstrings, calf, hip flexors and hip abductors, along with resisted tibial internal rotation.[10]

Use three to four sets, progressing from 15 repetitions to a 6 repetition maximum, every other day. Start in a pain-free range that limits compression of the tendon, then progress to full range. Progress when strength is close to the other side and the programme causes minimal pain.[22]

Three example exercises to strengthen the affected popliteus muscle are described below:[28]

Exercise 1: Reverse heel tap

Starting Position: Stand on the unaffected leg, holding on to a stable support for balance if needed. The affected leg is non-weight bearing (NWBL), knee slightly flexed and foot just off the floor. Attach a resistance band on to the forefoot of the NWBL, anchor band on the instep of the foot to resist internal rotation of the tibia.

  1. Flex the knee and externally rotate the hip to bring the NWBL foot behind the stance leg.
  2. Continue moving the NWBL foot behind the stance leg while internally rotating the tibia against the resistance band.
  3. Return to starting position slowly, controlling band pull, providing eccentric muscle effort.

The video below is an exercise tutorial on the reverse heel tap.

[31]

Exercise 2: Step task

In this exercise, the patient has to do a quick loading-unloading step exercise. This means that the exercise will be done as fast as possible, without losing the integrity of the exercise.

  • Put the foot of the NWBL posterior and lateral of the stance leg
  • Put the foot of the NWBL forward
  • Put the foot of the NWBL posterior and medial of the stance leg
  • Put the foot of the NWBL forward
  • Put the foot of the NWBL sideward of the stance leg
Exercise 3

A stepping task performed on an unstable surface.

Energy Storage and Sport-specific Loading

Add faster, dynamic and rotational tasks such as;[28]

  • stepping drills
  • hopping
  • cutting
  • work on unstable surfaces.

Increase volume before intensity, and reintroduce downhill running gradually (Kakavas et al., 2025).

Return to Sport

Build training and competition load gradually while continuing strength work at least twice a week. Discharge criteria include pain-free high-load symmetrical strength testing and completing full training sessions with minimal symptoms within 24 hours.[22]

Adjunct Treatments

Adjuncts may be added to exercise but should not replace it. The evidence for certain adjuncts is summarised below:

  • Shockwave therapy has a large evidence base in tendinopathies.[4]
  • In one trial in patellar tendinopathy, adding high-dose therapeutic ultrasound to slow resistance training gave the largest improvement. The benefit of ultrasound alone did not last to follow-up.[32]
  • Dry needling can reach the popliteus accurately and safely. In healthy volunteers, an ultrasound-validated technique using a 0.30 × 50 mm needle reached the muscle in 92% of attempts with no neurovascular puncture.[6]
  • Blood flow restriction training allows strengthening with light loads. It may be an option for patients who cannot yet tolerate heavy loading, but evidence on tendon outcomes is mixed and none involves the popliteus.[33]

Prognosis and Return to Activity

Most people recover well with conservative care, although recovery times vary. The available data are summarised below:

  • In football players, return to play was at 11 days for popliteus tendinopathy, the shortest time to return to training of all tendon injuries.[34]
  • Structured rehabilitation programme takes four to six weeks.[2]
  • After acute isolated popliteus injuries, return to sport for all athletes was at a mean of about 11 weeks. Intrasubstance tears took about 6 weeks and avulsions about 15 weeks.[10]

Symptoms often improve before the tendon tissue has fully recovered, which may help explain why recurrence is common.[15] Continuing strength work after return to sport may reduce this risk.[22]

Summary

Popliteus tendinopathy causes posterolateral knee pain that is typically worse with downhill running, stairs and other decelerating activities.[2] It develops when loading exceeds the tendon's capacity to adapt, through an interplay of mechanical stress, inflammation and vascular change.[4]

The key points for clinicians are listed below.

  • Diagnosis relies mainly on the history and examination, as no clinical test has been validated. Ultrasound or MRI can confirm the diagnosis and help exclude other causes such as a lateral meniscus tear.[6]
  • Differential diagnosis can include ganglia, calcific tendinopathy and impingement after knee arthroplasty.[7]
  • Management should centre on education, load modification and progressive strengthening, not rest.[14][21]
  • Exercise appears most effective with added external resistance, performed less than daily and progressed using pain monitoring.[22][30]
  • Injections and surgery are reserved for specific diagnoses or for cases that do not respond to rehabilitation.[2]

Most people recover well with conservative care, and athletes often return to training within weeks.[34] High-quality research specific to the popliteus is still needed to guide diagnosis and treatment.

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 Kambhampati SBS, Puppala DR, Botchu R, Karlapudi V, Vaishya R, D’Ambrosi R. Pathologies of the popliteus tendon – A comprehensive review of the current literature. J Arthrosc Surg Sports Med. 2026;7(Suppl 1):S54-S66.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 Russell RL, Katz N, Schroeder AN. Popliteal Tendinopathies in the Athlete: A Narrative Review of Popliteus, Hamstring, and Gastrocnemius Tendon Pathologies at the Popliteal Fossa. Curr Phys Med Rehabil Rep. 2025;13(1):33.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Maffulli N. Overuse tendon conditions: Time to change a confusing terminology. Arthroscopy. 1998;14(8):840-843.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Gehwolf R, Tempfer H, Cesur NP, Wagner A, Traweger A, Lehner C. Tendinopathy: The Interplay between Mechanical Stress, Inflammation, and Vascularity. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2025;12(36):e06440.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Olewnik Ł, Landfald IC, Gonera B, et al. Popliteus Tendon Morphology: Anatomical Classification and Clinical Implications—A Narrative Review. Biomedicines. 2025;13(9):2053.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 De-Arriba-Agre JI, García-Mulas C, Grigelmo-Hernández S, et al. Dry Needling of the Popliteus Muscle Validation by Ultrasound Imaging: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2022;11(21):6409.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Finsterwald MA, Lu V, Andronic O, Prosser GH, Yates PJ, Jones CW. Popliteal tendon impingement as a cause of pain following total knee arthroplasty: a systematic review. Arthroplasty. 2023;5(1):45.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Reden M, Rippke JN, Avram GM, et al. Symptomatic Tendon Sheath Ganglion at the Insertion of the Popliteus Tendon Treated With Local Cortisone Injection. Case Reports in Orthopedics. 2026;2026(1):6686698.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Hyland S, Varacallo MA. Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Popliteus Muscle. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed October 4, 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 Morrissey CD, Knapik DM. Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Return to Sport After Isolated Popliteus Injuries in Athletes: A Systematic Review. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2022;10(2):23259671211073617.
  11. ↑ LAPRADE R. et al., Analysis of the static function of the popliteus tendon in evaluation of an anatomic reconstruction: “the fifth ligament of the knee”, Am J Sports Med., 2010
  12. ↑ Aksu N, Atansay V, Aksu T, Damla Kara Ş, Koçulu S, Karalök I. Overuse Injuries in Professional Anatolian Folk Dancers: A Descriptive Study Verified with MRI. Medical Problems of Performing Artists. 2017;32(3):152-158.
  13. ↑ Mayfield GW. Popliteus tendon tenosynovitis. Am J Sports Med. 1977 Jan-Feb
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Stańczak M, Kacprzak B, Gawda P. Tendon Cell Biology: Effect of Mechanical Loading. Cellular Physiology & Biochemistry. 2024;58(6):677-701. Accessed October 4, 2026.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Darrieutort-Laffite C, Blanchard F, Soslowsky LJ, Le Goff B. Biology and physiology of tendon healing. Joint Bone Spine. 2024;91(5):105696.
  16. ↑ Brawn&Brains. The Tendinopathy Continuum. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYa6YLUG1N8 [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Aboobacker Amras, R. Kamalakannan. Role of Aquatic Therapy in Knee Rehabilitation: A Narrative review. IJPOT. 2023;17(4):1-6.
  18. ↑ @MSKMRI. (Fig 3-B.15) Popliteus Tendon Avulsion Fracture. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/shorts/Lt9mRYO4U9o [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  19. ↑ SportDrDinesh. #ultrasound Guided Interventions: Popliteus (Imaging). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JILPrAzy56Q [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  20. ↑ First Look MRI - Power to the Patient. Fibular collateral ligament sprain and popliteus tendon injury. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UhfFoJGISP8 [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Cooper K, Alexander L, Brandie D, et al. Exercise therapy for tendinopathy: a mixed-methods evidence synthesis exploring feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness. Health Technology Assessment. 2023;27(24):1-389.
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 22.10 Kakavas G, Forelli F, Korakakis V, Malliaropoulos N, Maffulli N. Neuroplastic periodization in tendinopathy. Br Med Bull. 2025;154(1):ldaf006.
  23. ↑ Kate D. Palpation: Popliteus. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ZEN4kYOKLo [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  24. ↑ prohealthsys. Popliteus Muscle Test Palp Dr Nikita Vizniak Muscle Manual. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Edfe0IMmXe8 [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  25. ↑ @lanebrownphysicaltherapist. How Do I Assess Tibial Rotation Actively? - Sports Physical Therapy. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/shorts/-CKBq72JwR0 [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  26. ↑ Sports Med Review. Garrick Test (for Popliteus Tendinopathy). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cryMjPdmKY4 [last accessed 07/10/2026]
  27. ↑ Masiello F, Pati I, Veropalumbo E, Pupella S, Cruciani M, Angelis VD. Ultrasound-guided injection of platelet-rich plasma for tendinopathies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Blood Transfusion. 2023;21(2):119-136.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 John Nyland et al.; Anatomy, Function, and Rehabilitation of the Popliteus Musculotendinous Complex; Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy; March 2005
  29. ↑ Dubois B, Esculier J. Soft-tissue injuries simply need PEACE and LOVE. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2020
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Pavlova AV, Shim JSC, Moss R, et al. Effect of resistance exercise dose components for tendinopathy management: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2023;57(20):1327-1334.
  31. ↑ Dr. Christy Lee. Reverse Heel Tap. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jq_Yb0Cd80 [last accessed 18/10/2026]
  32. ↑ Xiao L, Zhou H, He J, et al. Comprehensive assessment of heavy slow resistance training and high-dose therapeutic ultrasound in managing patellar tendinopathy, a randomized single-blind controlled trial. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2024;16(1):213.
  33. ↑ Öberg S, von Schewelov L, Tengman E. The impact of blood flow restriction training on tendon adaptation and tendon rehabilitation – a scoping review. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2025;26(1):503.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Wagemans J, Ahmadi E, Taeymans J, et al. Time to return to sports in football players recovering from lower limb soft tissue injuries: a systematic review with meta-analysis. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2026;12(2).
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