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'''Original Editor '''- [[User: | '''Original Editor '''- [[User:Wanda van Niekerk|Wanda van Niekerk]] | ||
'''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} | '''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} | ||
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* maintenance of normal bodily functions | * maintenance of normal bodily functions | ||
Macronutrients are necessary in large amounts to | Macronutrients are necessary in large amounts to have a full and proper effect. The three types of macronutrients are<ref name=":3" />: | ||
* carbohydrates | * [[carbohydrates]] | ||
* proteins | * [[proteins]] | ||
* fats | * [[Lipids|fats]] | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Line 31: | Line 31: | ||
* Types: sugars, starch, fibre<ref>Blaak EE, Riccardi G, Cho L. Carbohydrates: Separating fact from fiction. Atherosclerosis. 2021 Jul 1;328:114-23.</ref> | * Types: sugars, starch, fibre<ref>Blaak EE, Riccardi G, Cho L. Carbohydrates: Separating fact from fiction. Atherosclerosis. 2021 Jul 1;328:114-23.</ref> | ||
| | | | ||
* Chemical foundation for all cells, antibodies, enzymes and hormones<ref name=":4">Whitford D. Proteins: structure and function. John Wiley & Sons; 2013 Apr 25.</ref> | * Chemical foundation for all cells, [[Immunoglobulins (Ig)|antibodies]], [[enzymes]] and [[hormones]]<ref name=":4">Whitford D. Proteins: structure and function. John Wiley & Sons; 2013 Apr 25.</ref> | ||
* Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins<ref name=":4" /> | * Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins<ref name=":4" /> | ||
* Promotes wound healing<ref>Roefs MT, Sluijter JP, Vader P. Extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in tissue repair. Trends in cell biology. 2020 Dec 1;30(12):990-1013.</ref> | * Promotes wound healing<ref>Roefs MT, Sluijter JP, Vader P. Extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in tissue repair. Trends in cell biology. 2020 Dec 1;30(12):990-1013.</ref> | ||
** Plays a role in development and repair of bone, muscle and skin | ** Plays a role in the development and repair of bone, muscle and skin | ||
** Protein needs are increased during more stressful times and/or during illness | ** Protein needs are increased during more stressful times and/or during illness | ||
* Essential for transport of oxygen around the body<ref>Bellelli A, Tame JR. Hemoglobin allostery and pharmacology. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2022 Apr 1;84:101037.</ref> | * Essential for transport of [[oxygen]] around the body<ref>Bellelli A, Tame JR. Hemoglobin allostery and pharmacology. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2022 Apr 1;84:101037.</ref> | ||
| | | | ||
* An essential nutrient, necessary for normal functioning of the body | * An essential nutrient, necessary for the normal functioning of the body | ||
* Concentrated form of energy<ref>Muscella A, Stefàno E, Lunetti P, Capobianco L, Marsigliante S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7767423/pdf/biomolecules-10-01699.pdf The regulation of fat metabolism during aerobic exercise.] Biomolecules. 2020 Dec 21;10(12):1699.</ref> | * Concentrated form of energy<ref>Muscella A, Stefàno E, Lunetti P, Capobianco L, Marsigliante S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7767423/pdf/biomolecules-10-01699.pdf The regulation of fat metabolism during aerobic exercise.] Biomolecules. 2020 Dec 21;10(12):1699.</ref> | ||
* Help maintain body temperature and insulation of body organs<ref>Mohajan D, Mohajan HK. A [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370155448_A_Study_on_Body_Fat_Percentage_for_Physical_Fitness_and_Prevention_of_Obesity_A_Two_Compartment_Model Study on Body Fat Percentage for Physical Fitness and Prevention of Obesity: A Two Compartment Model.] Journal of Innovations in Medical Research. 2023 Apr 21;2(4):1-0.</ref> | * Help maintain body temperature and insulation of body organs<ref>Mohajan D, Mohajan HK. A [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370155448_A_Study_on_Body_Fat_Percentage_for_Physical_Fitness_and_Prevention_of_Obesity_A_Two_Compartment_Model Study on Body Fat Percentage for Physical Fitness and Prevention of Obesity: A Two Compartment Model.] Journal of Innovations in Medical Research. 2023 Apr 21;2(4):1-0.</ref> | ||
* Necessary for | * Necessary for healthy skin and normal nerve function<ref>Yildiran H, Macit MS, Özata Uyar G. New approach to peripheral nerve injury: nutritional therapy. Nutritional neuroscience. 2020 Oct 2;23(10):744-55.</ref> | ||
* Carry the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K<ref>Meijaard E, Abrams JF, Slavin JL, Sheil D. [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.878644/full Dietary fats, human nutrition and the environment: Balance and sustainability.] Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022 Apr 25;9:878644.</ref> | * Carry the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K<ref name=":9">Meijaard E, Abrams JF, Slavin JL, Sheil D. [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.878644/full Dietary fats, human nutrition and the environment: Balance and sustainability.] Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022 Apr 25;9:878644.</ref> | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== Micronutrients === | === Micronutrients === | ||
Micronutrients are essential, but we need these in smaller amounts.<ref name=":5">Beck KL, von Hurst PR, O'Brien WJ, Badenhorst CE. Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;158:112618.</ref> Micronutrients are necessary for cell growth and function. The human body | Micronutrients are essential, but we need these in smaller amounts.<ref name=":5">Beck KL, von Hurst PR, O'Brien WJ, Badenhorst CE. Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;158:112618.</ref> Micronutrients are necessary for cell growth and function. The human body cannot produce micronutrients, so they must be consumed.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ | |+Table 2. Micronutrients in nutrition | ||
!Vitamins | !Vitamins | ||
!Minerals and their function | !Minerals and their function | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Fat soluble - | * Fat-soluble - absorbed through intestines with fat (Vitamins A, D, E, K)<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* Water soluble - dissolve in water ( | * Water soluble - dissolve in water (Vitamins B complex and C)<ref name=":5" /> | ||
| | | | ||
* Fluid and electrolyte balance (sodium, potassium)<ref name=":6">Godswill AG, Somtochukwu IV, Ikechukwu AO, Kate EC. Health benefits of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and their associated deficiency diseases: A systematic review. International Journal of Food Sciences. 2020 Jan 7;3(1):1-32.</ref> | * Fluid and electrolyte balance (sodium, potassium)<ref name=":6">Godswill AG, Somtochukwu IV, Ikechukwu AO, Kate EC. Health benefits of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and their associated deficiency diseases: A systematic review. International Journal of Food Sciences. 2020 Jan 7;3(1):1-32.</ref> | ||
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* Water is best for hydration, but any calorie-free, non-caffeinated, non-alcoholic fluid can work | * Water is best for hydration, but any calorie-free, non-caffeinated, non-alcoholic fluid can work | ||
** Caffeine and alcohol function as diuretics | ** Caffeine and alcohol function as diuretics<ref>Alwis US, Haddad R, Monaghan TF, Abrams P, Dmochowski R, Bower W, Wein AJ, Roggeman S, Weiss JP, Mourad S, Delanghe J. Impact of food and drinks on urine production: A systematic review. International Journal of Clinical Practice. 2020 Sep;74(9):e13539.</ref> | ||
=== Food Groups === | === Food Groups === | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
* | |+Table 3. The main food groups and examples | ||
* | !Fruits | ||
* | !Vegetables | ||
** Plant based sources | !Protein | ||
!Grains/starch | |||
!Dairy | |||
!Fats | |||
** | |- | ||
** | | | ||
** | * Apples | ||
* Strawberries | |||
* Pears | |||
* Bananas | |||
| | |||
* Carrots | |||
* Broccoli | |||
* Cauliflower | |||
* Butternut | |||
| | |||
* Plant-based sources | |||
** beans, lentils, legumes | |||
** nuts, nut butter, seeds | |||
* Animal-based sources | |||
** poultry | |||
** lean cuts of beef and pork | |||
** oily fish | |||
| | |||
* Grains/starch | * Grains/starch | ||
** | ** whole grains | ||
*** | *** quinoa, oats, barley | ||
** | ** popcorn | ||
** | ** potatoes, corn, peas (the nutritional make-up of these foods is more similar to grains than vegetables) | ||
| | |||
* Milk, yoghurt, cheese | |||
* Non-dairy milk and yoghurt | |||
* Kefir | |||
| | |||
* Plant-based fats are better | |||
** | ** avocado, olives, nuts/seeds | ||
|} | |||
MyPlate provides good examples of healthy eating. Read more [https://www.myplate.gov/ here.] | |||
== Sports Nutrition == | == Sports Nutrition == | ||
=== Energy Balance and Exercise === | === Energy Balance and Exercise === | ||
Some considerations with energy balance and exercise include<ref name=":7">Manore, M. Chapter 5: Energy Requirements and Measurement of Energy Expenditure. In Burke, L, Deakin, V, Minehan M. Clinical Sports Nutrition. 6th Edition. Sydney. McGraw Hill. 2021</ref>: | |||
* Energy balance is important for athletes wanting to change their body mass and/or body composition in order to improve performance or make a specified weight category for their sport. | * Energy balance is important for athletes wanting to change their body mass and/or [[Body Composition|body composition]] in order to improve performance or make a specified weight category for their sport. | ||
* Insufficient energy consumption in relation to expended energy will result in the effects of training being lost, as muscle and fat will be used as energy sources | * Insufficient energy consumption in relation to expended energy will result in the effects of training being lost, as muscle and fat will be used as energy sources. | ||
* Restricted energy intake may compromise | * Restricted energy intake may compromise an athlete's ability to obtain necessary nutrients. | ||
* Athletes need to consume enough energy to cover the energy costs of: | * Athletes need to consume enough energy to cover the energy costs of<ref name=":7" />: | ||
** daily living | ** daily living | ||
** their sport | ** their sport | ||
** building and repairing muscle tissue | ** building and repairing muscle tissue | ||
* Energy balance = | * Energy balance = E<sub>in</sub> = E<sub>out</sub> | ||
** | ** E<sub>in</sub> = energy consumed | ||
** | ** E<sub>out</sub> = expended energy | ||
* Energy balance is a dynamic process | * Energy balance is a dynamic process | ||
** for example, if energy intake is changed through a different diet, this can affect the physiological and biological components of energy expenditure | ** for example, if energy intake is changed through a different diet, this can affect the physiological and biological components of energy expenditure.<ref name=":7" /> | ||
* | * Factors that influence energy balance can be<ref name=":7" />: | ||
** internal | ** internal | ||
*** genetic | *** [[Genetics and Health|genetic]] | ||
*** epigenetic | *** [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] | ||
*** metabolic | *** metabolic | ||
*** hormonal | *** hormonal | ||
Line 120: | Line 138: | ||
*** behavioural | *** behavioural | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Table Influencing factors on energy intake and expenditure | |+Table 4. Influencing factors on energy intake and expenditure<ref name=":7" /> | ||
!Energy intake | !Energy intake | ||
!Energy expenditure | !Energy expenditure | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* | * Diet composition | ||
* | * Timing of intake | ||
* | * Exercise intensity | ||
* | * Types of food | ||
| | | | ||
* | * Diet composition | ||
* | * Exercise intensity | ||
* | * Sedentary behaviour | ||
* | * Resting metabolic rate | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== Training Consequences of a Negative Energy Balance ==== | ==== Training Consequences of a Negative Energy Balance ==== | ||
* Increased risk of [[Stress Fractures|stress fractures]]<ref>Abbott A, Bird ML, Wild E, Brown SM, Stewart G, Mulcahey MK. Part I: epidemiology and risk factors for stress fractures in female athletes. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2020 Jan 2;48(1):17-24.</ref> | |||
* Decreased athletic performance<ref>Rupasinghe WA, Perera TS, Silva KD, Samita S, Wickramaratne MN. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9806877/pdf/40795_2022_Article_662.pdf Nutritional intake of sport undergraduates in Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka.] BMC nutrition. 2023 Jan 2;9(1):2.</ref> | |||
* Increased risk of stress fractures | * Slower phospocreatine recovery rates<ref name=":8">Mancini, L. Sports Nutrition. National Fellow Online Lecture Series. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SGM1uLNATA8. (last accessed 06 July 2023)</ref> | ||
* Decreased athletic performance | * Athlete enters a hypometabolic catabolic state (low insulin growth factors, high cortisol-releasing hormone, high cortisol levels), which means it is more difficult for athletes to increase their lean muscle mass.<ref name=":8" /> | ||
* Slower phospocreatine recovery rates | * Increased risk of injury<ref>Logue DM, Madigan SM, Melin A, Delahunt E, Heinen M, Donnell SJ, Corish CA. Low energy availability in athletes 2020: an updated narrative review of prevalence, risk, within-day energy balance, knowledge, and impact on sports performance. Nutrients. 2020 Mar 20;12(3):835.</ref> | ||
* Athlete enters a hypometabolic catabolic state (low insulin growth factors, high cortisol-releasing hormone, high cortisol levels) | * Changes (decrease) in metabolic rate<ref>Siedler MR, De Souza MJ, Albracht-Schulte K, Sekiguchi Y, Tinsley GM. The Influence of Energy Balance and Availability on Resting Metabolic Rate: Implications for Assessment and Future Research Directions. Sports Medicine. 2023 May 22:1-20.</ref> | ||
* Breakdown of lean tissue<ref>Benardot D. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345813499_Nutritional_Concerns_for_the_Artistic_Athlete Nutritional concerns for the artistic athlete.] Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics. 2021 Feb 1;32(1):51-64.</ref> | |||
* | |||
==== How Many Calories | ==== How Many Calories Do Athletes Need? ==== | ||
* TEE = REE x AL x TAE | * TEE = REE x AL x TAE<ref name=":8" /> | ||
** TEE = Total energy expenditure | ** TEE = Total energy expenditure | ||
** REE = Resting energy expenditure | ** REE = Resting energy expenditure | ||
Line 156: | Line 172: | ||
* Adequate calories are a vital component of nutrition for athletes | * Adequate calories are a vital component of nutrition for athletes | ||
* Quality is just as important as quantity (what you eat is just as important as how much you eat) | * Quality is just as important as quantity (i.e. what you eat is just as important as how much you eat)<ref name=":8" /> | ||
=== Carbohydrate Intake and Needs for Athletes === | === Carbohydrate Intake and Needs for Athletes === | ||
Carbohydrates for athletes: | Carbohydrates for athletes: | ||
* Provide energy | * Provide energy<ref>Moore DR, Sygo J, Morton JP. Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations. European Journal of Sport Science. 2022 May 4;22(5):684-96.</ref> | ||
* | * They contribute: | ||
** dietary fibre | ** dietary fibre | ||
** Vitamins for example vitamin B complex | ** Vitamins, for example, vitamin B complex | ||
** Antioxidants in fruits and vegetables | ** [[Free Radicals|Antioxidants]] in fruits and vegetables | ||
Considerations when discussing carbohydrates with athletes: | Considerations when discussing carbohydrates with athletes<ref name=":8" />: | ||
* quality of carbohydrates (low versus high quality) | * quality of carbohydrates (low versus high quality) | ||
* | * high versus low glycaemic index | ||
* | * timing of intake | ||
* | * variety of sources necessary | ||
** vegetables, fruits, sweet potatoes, quinoa, brown rice, wild rice, nuts, seeds | ** vegetables, fruits, sweet potatoes, quinoa, brown rice, wild rice, nuts, seeds | ||
==== | ==== Amount of Carbohydrates Required ==== | ||
* Carbohydrate intake ranges from 3 to 10 g/kg BW/day (it may reach 12g/kg BW/day for extreme and prolonged activities) | * Carbohydrate intake ranges from 3 to 10 g/kg BW/day (it may reach 12g/kg BW/day for extreme and prolonged activities)<ref name=":10" /> - BW = body weight | ||
* Intake ranges are dependent on: | * Intake ranges are dependent on<ref name=":10" />: | ||
** fuel demands of training and competition | ** fuel demands of training and competition | ||
** balance between performance and training adaptation goals | ** balance between performance and training adaptation goals | ||
** total energy requirement of the athlete | ** total energy requirement of the athlete | ||
** body composition goals of athlete | ** body composition goals of the athlete | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Table Guidelines for Carbohydrate Intake by Athletes | |+Table 5. Guidelines for Carbohydrate Intake by Athletes<ref name=":10" /> | ||
!Activity Level | !Activity Level | ||
!Carbohydrate targets | !Carbohydrate targets | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Light (low intensity exercise or skill-based training activities) | |Light (low-intensity exercise or skill-based training activities) | ||
|3 - 5 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |3 - 5 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Moderate ( | |Moderate (moderate training/exercise for about an hour/day | ||
|5 - 7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |5 - 7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|- | |- | ||
|High (endurance training programme, 1 to 3 hours/day, moderate to high intensity exercise) | |High (endurance training programme, 1 to 3 hours/day, moderate to high-intensity exercise) | ||
|6 - 10 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |6 - 10 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Very high (extreme training, more than 4 to g hours/day moderate to high intensity exercise) | |Very high (extreme training, more than 4 to g hours/day moderate to high-intensity exercise) | ||
|8 - 12 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |8 - 12 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|} | |} | ||
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=== Fat Intake and Needs for Athletes === | === Fat Intake and Needs for Athletes === | ||
* Healthy diets do include fat | * Healthy diets do include fat | ||
* Fat provides energy | * Fat provides energy<ref name=":10" /> | ||
* Fat is an essential component of cell membranes | * Fat is an essential component of cell membranes | ||
* Fat facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins | * Fat facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins<ref name=":9" /> | ||
* Fat aids in recovery | * Fat aids in recovery | ||
** Growth hormone | ** [[Growth Hormone|Growth hormone]] | ||
** Testosterone levels in athletes | ** Testosterone levels in athletes | ||
* Fat helps | * Fat helps<ref name=":10" />: | ||
** nervous system repair | ** nervous system repair | ||
** cognitive function | ** cognitive function | ||
** | ** decrease body inflammation | ||
* Considerations with fat intake: | * Considerations with fat intake<ref name=":8" />: | ||
** omega 6: omega 3 ratio | ** omega 6: omega 3 ratio | ||
** essential fatty acids | ** essential fatty acids | ||
** fish oil fats (omega- | ** fish oil fats (omega-3s) | ||
** avoid trans fats | ** avoid trans fats | ||
==== | ==== Amount of Fat Required ==== | ||
* Fat intake should not be less than 20% of an athlete's daily caloric intake | * Fat intake should not be less than 20% of an athlete's daily caloric intake<ref name=":10" /> | ||
* Typically between 20% to 35% of total energy intake is acceptable | * Typically between 20% to 35% of total energy intake is acceptable<ref name=":10" /> | ||
* Recommended: 0.5 to 1.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | * Recommended: 0.5 to 1.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day<ref name=":10" /> | ||
=== Protein Intake and Needs for Athletes === | === Protein Intake and Needs for Athletes === | ||
* Athletes need more protein than the recommended daily allowance (RDA) | * Athletes need more protein than the recommended daily allowance (RDA) | ||
* Recommendations typically range from 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | * Recommendations typically range from 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day<ref name=":10" /> | ||
** Endurance athletes need 1.2 to 1.7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ** Endurance athletes need 1.2 to 1.7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
** Strength training athletes need 1.6 - 2.2 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ** Strength training athletes need 1.6 - 2.2 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
* Vegetarians need more protein | * Vegetarians need more protein | ||
* Benefits of protein intake at higher levels : | * Benefits of protein intake at higher levels:<ref name=":10" /> | ||
** decreased blood | ** decreased blood triglyceride levels | ||
** improved body composition | ** improved body composition | ||
** enhanced weight loss | ** enhanced weight loss | ||
Line 251: | Line 267: | ||
==== Timing and Protein Intake ==== | ==== Timing and Protein Intake ==== | ||
* Must have protein with every meal to help with muscle recovery and muscle protein synthesis | * Must have protein with every meal to help with muscle recovery and muscle protein synthesis<ref name=":10" /> | ||
* Regular spacing of intakes of modest amounts of protein after exercise and throughout the day is recommended | * Regular spacing of intakes of modest amounts of protein after exercise and throughout the day is recommended<ref name=":10" /> | ||
=== Water === | === Water === | ||
Line 264: | Line 280: | ||
* Prevent excessive hypohydration during exercise<ref name=":1" /> | * Prevent excessive hypohydration during exercise<ref name=":1" /> | ||
* Replace fluid losses following exercise prior to the next training session/exercise bout<ref name=":1" /> | * Replace fluid losses following exercise prior to the next training session/exercise bout<ref name=":1" /> | ||
* Avoid exercise associated hyponatremia<ref>Seal AD, Kavouras SA. A review of risk factors and prevention strategies for exercise associated hyponatremia. Autonomic Neuroscience. 2022 Mar 1;238:102930.</ref> | * Avoid exercise associated hyponatremia<ref>Seal AD, Kavouras SA. A review of risk factors and prevention strategies for exercise-associated hyponatremia. Autonomic Neuroscience. 2022 Mar 1;238:102930.</ref> | ||
** Read more: [[Fluid Excess/Intoxication]] | ** Read more: [[Fluid Excess/Intoxication]] | ||
Fluid needs for athletes are | Fluid needs for athletes are individual and depend on factors such as<ref name=":1" />: | ||
* sweat rate of the individual | * sweat rate of the individual | ||
Line 274: | Line 290: | ||
* environmental conditions | * environmental conditions | ||
* duration of exercise | * duration of exercise | ||
Dehydration has a negative impact on physical performance for activities that last more than 30 seconds, but it has no significant | Dehydration has a negative impact on physical performance for activities that last more than 30 seconds, but it has no significant impact on performance for activities that last less than 15 seconds.<ref>Carlton A, Orr RM. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271773635_The_effects_of_fluid_loss_on_physical_performance_A_critical_review The effects of fluid loss on physical performance: A critical review.] Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2015 Dec 1;4(4):357-63.</ref> | ||
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Current Recommendations on Hydration<ref>Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. | American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Current Recommendations on Hydration<ref name=":10">Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. [https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2016/03000/Nutrition_and_Athletic_Performance.25.aspx?WT.mc_id=HPxADx20100319xMP Nutrition and athletic performance.] Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016 Mar;48(3):543-68.</ref>: | ||
* Before exercise: | * Before exercise: | ||
Line 294: | Line 310: | ||
* the convenience of the specific nutritional strategy | * the convenience of the specific nutritional strategy | ||
The | The 4Rs is a useful mnemonic to consider<ref name=":2" />: | ||
* Rehydrate | * Rehydrate | ||
** enough water to compensate for weight loss during training (1.25 - 1.5 litres for every kg BW lost) | ** enough water to compensate for weight loss during training (1.25 - 1.5 litres for every kg BW lost) | ||
* Refuel | * Refuel | ||
** combination of carbohydrates and protein is a good strategy for glycogen replenishment and tissue repair | ** a combination of carbohydrates and protein is a good strategy for glycogen replenishment and tissue repair | ||
* Repair | * Repair | ||
** ingestion of high quality protein can contribute to faster tissue growth and repair | ** ingestion of high-quality protein can contribute to faster tissue growth and repair | ||
* Rest | * Rest | ||
** optimal sleeping time and good quality sleep | ** optimal sleeping time and good quality sleep are necessary for recovery | ||
== Resources == | |||
* [https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2016/03000/Nutrition_and_Athletic_Performance.25.aspx?WT.mc_id=HPxADx20100319xMP Nutrition and Athletic Performance]<ref name=":10" /> | |||
* [https://www.acsm.org/home/featured-blogs---homepage/acsm-blog/2018/12/04/ten-sports-nutrition-facts Ten things you need to know about sports nutrition] | |||
* [https://www.acsm.org/all-blog-posts/acsm-blog/acsm-blog/2019/06/18/sports-nutrition-myths-busted The Athlete's Kitchen: Sports Nutrition Myths BUSTED!] | |||
* Australian Institute of Sport. [https://www.ais.gov.au/nutrition/additional-resources Nutrition resources] | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||
[[Category:Plus Content]] | |||
[[Category:Sports Medicine]] | |||
[[Category:Course Pages]] |
Latest revision as of 04:35, 1 September 2023
Original Editor - Wanda van Niekerk
Top Contributors - Wanda van Niekerk, Jess Bell and Lucinda hampton
Basics of Nutrition[edit | edit source]
Macronutrients[edit | edit source]
Macronutrients provide calories or energy to the body.[1] Their function is to promote:
- cellular growth
- metabolism
- maintenance of normal bodily functions
Macronutrients are necessary in large amounts to have a full and proper effect. The three types of macronutrients are[1]:
Carbohydrates | Proteins | Fats |
---|---|---|
|
Micronutrients[edit | edit source]
Micronutrients are essential, but we need these in smaller amounts.[12] Micronutrients are necessary for cell growth and function. The human body cannot produce micronutrients, so they must be consumed.[12]
Vitamins | Minerals and their function |
---|---|
Water[edit | edit source]
- Water is best for hydration, but any calorie-free, non-caffeinated, non-alcoholic fluid can work
- Caffeine and alcohol function as diuretics[14]
Food Groups[edit | edit source]
Fruits | Vegetables | Protein | Grains/starch | Dairy | Fats |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
MyPlate provides good examples of healthy eating. Read more here.
Sports Nutrition[edit | edit source]
Energy Balance and Exercise[edit | edit source]
Some considerations with energy balance and exercise include[15]:
- Energy balance is important for athletes wanting to change their body mass and/or body composition in order to improve performance or make a specified weight category for their sport.
- Insufficient energy consumption in relation to expended energy will result in the effects of training being lost, as muscle and fat will be used as energy sources.
- Restricted energy intake may compromise an athlete's ability to obtain necessary nutrients.
- Athletes need to consume enough energy to cover the energy costs of[15]:
- daily living
- their sport
- building and repairing muscle tissue
- Energy balance = Ein = Eout
- Ein = energy consumed
- Eout = expended energy
- Energy balance is a dynamic process
- for example, if energy intake is changed through a different diet, this can affect the physiological and biological components of energy expenditure.[15]
- Factors that influence energy balance can be[15]:
- internal
- genetic
- epigenetic
- metabolic
- hormonal
- neural
- external
- environmental
- social
- behavioural
- internal
Energy intake | Energy expenditure |
---|---|
|
|
Training Consequences of a Negative Energy Balance[edit | edit source]
- Increased risk of stress fractures[16]
- Decreased athletic performance[17]
- Slower phospocreatine recovery rates[18]
- Athlete enters a hypometabolic catabolic state (low insulin growth factors, high cortisol-releasing hormone, high cortisol levels), which means it is more difficult for athletes to increase their lean muscle mass.[18]
- Increased risk of injury[19]
- Changes (decrease) in metabolic rate[20]
- Breakdown of lean tissue[21]
How Many Calories Do Athletes Need?[edit | edit source]
- TEE = REE x AL x TAE[18]
- TEE = Total energy expenditure
- REE = Resting energy expenditure
- AL = Active lifestyle
- TAE = Training activity energy
- Adequate calories are a vital component of nutrition for athletes
- Quality is just as important as quantity (i.e. what you eat is just as important as how much you eat)[18]
Carbohydrate Intake and Needs for Athletes[edit | edit source]
Carbohydrates for athletes:
- Provide energy[22]
- They contribute:
- dietary fibre
- Vitamins, for example, vitamin B complex
- Antioxidants in fruits and vegetables
Considerations when discussing carbohydrates with athletes[18]:
- quality of carbohydrates (low versus high quality)
- high versus low glycaemic index
- timing of intake
- variety of sources necessary
- vegetables, fruits, sweet potatoes, quinoa, brown rice, wild rice, nuts, seeds
Amount of Carbohydrates Required[edit | edit source]
- Carbohydrate intake ranges from 3 to 10 g/kg BW/day (it may reach 12g/kg BW/day for extreme and prolonged activities)[23] - BW = body weight
- Intake ranges are dependent on[23]:
- fuel demands of training and competition
- balance between performance and training adaptation goals
- total energy requirement of the athlete
- body composition goals of the athlete
Activity Level | Carbohydrate targets |
---|---|
Light (low-intensity exercise or skill-based training activities) | 3 - 5 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
Moderate (moderate training/exercise for about an hour/day | 5 - 7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
High (endurance training programme, 1 to 3 hours/day, moderate to high-intensity exercise) | 6 - 10 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
Very high (extreme training, more than 4 to g hours/day moderate to high-intensity exercise) | 8 - 12 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
Timing and Glycemic Index of Carbohydrates[edit | edit source]
- More carbohydrates on game days and days of intense training
- Fewer carbohydrates on off days and recovery days
- Fewer carbohydrates means that the athlete eats more vegetables, leafy greens
- Lower glycaemic index carbohydrates on non-training days
Fat Intake and Needs for Athletes[edit | edit source]
- Healthy diets do include fat
- Fat provides energy[23]
- Fat is an essential component of cell membranes
- Fat facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins[11]
- Fat aids in recovery
- Growth hormone
- Testosterone levels in athletes
- Fat helps[23]:
- nervous system repair
- cognitive function
- decrease body inflammation
- Considerations with fat intake[18]:
- omega 6: omega 3 ratio
- essential fatty acids
- fish oil fats (omega-3s)
- avoid trans fats
Amount of Fat Required[edit | edit source]
- Fat intake should not be less than 20% of an athlete's daily caloric intake[23]
- Typically between 20% to 35% of total energy intake is acceptable[23]
- Recommended: 0.5 to 1.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day[23]
Protein Intake and Needs for Athletes[edit | edit source]
- Athletes need more protein than the recommended daily allowance (RDA)
- Recommendations typically range from 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day[23]
- Endurance athletes need 1.2 to 1.7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day
- Strength training athletes need 1.6 - 2.2 g/kg of athlete's BW/day
- Vegetarians need more protein
- Benefits of protein intake at higher levels:[23]
- decreased blood triglyceride levels
- improved body composition
- enhanced weight loss
- stabilised blood glucose levels
- reduced risk of disease
- improved bone health
Timing and Protein Intake[edit | edit source]
- Must have protein with every meal to help with muscle recovery and muscle protein synthesis[23]
- Regular spacing of intakes of modest amounts of protein after exercise and throughout the day is recommended[23]
Water[edit | edit source]
- Euhydrated = when an individual has normal body water content[24]
- Hypohydrated = when an individual has lower than normal body water content[24]
Hydration Goals for Athletes[edit | edit source]
- Begin exercise in a euhydrated state[25]
- Prevent excessive hypohydration during exercise[25]
- Replace fluid losses following exercise prior to the next training session/exercise bout[25]
- Avoid exercise associated hyponatremia[26]
- Read more: Fluid Excess/Intoxication
Fluid needs for athletes are individual and depend on factors such as[25]:
- sweat rate of the individual
- type of exercise
- exercise intensity
- environmental conditions
- duration of exercise
Dehydration has a negative impact on physical performance for activities that last more than 30 seconds, but it has no significant impact on performance for activities that last less than 15 seconds.[27]
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Current Recommendations on Hydration[23]:
- Before exercise:
- 5 - 10 ml/kg BW water, 2 - 4 hours before exercise
- During exercise:
- 0.4 - 0.8 l/h during exercise
- After exercise:
- 1.25 - 1.5 l for every kg BW lost
Post-Workout Nutrition[edit | edit source]
Athletes can apply different strategies for recovery after exercise. The amount, consumption and timing of nutritional strategies differ according to factors such as[28]:
- the type of sport
- the time between training sessions
- the athlete's level of preparation
- the convenience of the specific nutritional strategy
The 4Rs is a useful mnemonic to consider[28]:
- Rehydrate
- enough water to compensate for weight loss during training (1.25 - 1.5 litres for every kg BW lost)
- Refuel
- a combination of carbohydrates and protein is a good strategy for glycogen replenishment and tissue repair
- Repair
- ingestion of high-quality protein can contribute to faster tissue growth and repair
- Rest
- optimal sleeping time and good quality sleep are necessary for recovery
Resources[edit | edit source]
- Nutrition and Athletic Performance[23]
- Ten things you need to know about sports nutrition
- The Athlete's Kitchen: Sports Nutrition Myths BUSTED!
- Australian Institute of Sport. Nutrition resources
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Costa-Pinto R, Gantner D. Macronutrients, minerals, vitamins and energy. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. 2020 Mar 1;21(3):157-61.
- ↑ Slavin J, Carlson J. Carbohydrates. Advances in nutrition. 2014 Nov;5(6):760.
- ↑ Nimgampalle M, Chakravarthy H, Devanathan V. Glucose metabolism in the brain: An update. InRecent Developments in Applied Microbiology and Biochemistry 2021 Jan 1 (pp. 77-88). Academic Press.
- ↑ Blaak EE, Riccardi G, Cho L. Carbohydrates: Separating fact from fiction. Atherosclerosis. 2021 Jul 1;328:114-23.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Whitford D. Proteins: structure and function. John Wiley & Sons; 2013 Apr 25.
- ↑ Roefs MT, Sluijter JP, Vader P. Extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in tissue repair. Trends in cell biology. 2020 Dec 1;30(12):990-1013.
- ↑ Bellelli A, Tame JR. Hemoglobin allostery and pharmacology. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2022 Apr 1;84:101037.
- ↑ Muscella A, Stefàno E, Lunetti P, Capobianco L, Marsigliante S. The regulation of fat metabolism during aerobic exercise. Biomolecules. 2020 Dec 21;10(12):1699.
- ↑ Mohajan D, Mohajan HK. A Study on Body Fat Percentage for Physical Fitness and Prevention of Obesity: A Two Compartment Model. Journal of Innovations in Medical Research. 2023 Apr 21;2(4):1-0.
- ↑ Yildiran H, Macit MS, Özata Uyar G. New approach to peripheral nerve injury: nutritional therapy. Nutritional neuroscience. 2020 Oct 2;23(10):744-55.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Meijaard E, Abrams JF, Slavin JL, Sheil D. Dietary fats, human nutrition and the environment: Balance and sustainability. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022 Apr 25;9:878644.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Beck KL, von Hurst PR, O'Brien WJ, Badenhorst CE. Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;158:112618.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Godswill AG, Somtochukwu IV, Ikechukwu AO, Kate EC. Health benefits of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and their associated deficiency diseases: A systematic review. International Journal of Food Sciences. 2020 Jan 7;3(1):1-32.
- ↑ Alwis US, Haddad R, Monaghan TF, Abrams P, Dmochowski R, Bower W, Wein AJ, Roggeman S, Weiss JP, Mourad S, Delanghe J. Impact of food and drinks on urine production: A systematic review. International Journal of Clinical Practice. 2020 Sep;74(9):e13539.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Manore, M. Chapter 5: Energy Requirements and Measurement of Energy Expenditure. In Burke, L, Deakin, V, Minehan M. Clinical Sports Nutrition. 6th Edition. Sydney. McGraw Hill. 2021
- ↑ Abbott A, Bird ML, Wild E, Brown SM, Stewart G, Mulcahey MK. Part I: epidemiology and risk factors for stress fractures in female athletes. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2020 Jan 2;48(1):17-24.
- ↑ Rupasinghe WA, Perera TS, Silva KD, Samita S, Wickramaratne MN. Nutritional intake of sport undergraduates in Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. BMC nutrition. 2023 Jan 2;9(1):2.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Mancini, L. Sports Nutrition. National Fellow Online Lecture Series. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SGM1uLNATA8. (last accessed 06 July 2023)
- ↑ Logue DM, Madigan SM, Melin A, Delahunt E, Heinen M, Donnell SJ, Corish CA. Low energy availability in athletes 2020: an updated narrative review of prevalence, risk, within-day energy balance, knowledge, and impact on sports performance. Nutrients. 2020 Mar 20;12(3):835.
- ↑ Siedler MR, De Souza MJ, Albracht-Schulte K, Sekiguchi Y, Tinsley GM. The Influence of Energy Balance and Availability on Resting Metabolic Rate: Implications for Assessment and Future Research Directions. Sports Medicine. 2023 May 22:1-20.
- ↑ Benardot D. Nutritional concerns for the artistic athlete. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics. 2021 Feb 1;32(1):51-64.
- ↑ Moore DR, Sygo J, Morton JP. Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations. European Journal of Sport Science. 2022 May 4;22(5):684-96.
- ↑ 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 23.11 23.12 23.13 Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016 Mar;48(3):543-68.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Barley OR, Chapman DW, Abbiss CR. Reviewing the current methods of assessing hydration in athletes. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2020 Dec;17:1-3.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Belval LN, Hosokawa Y, Casa DJ, Adams WM, Armstrong LE, Baker LB, Burke L, Cheuvront S, Chiampas G, González-Alonso J, Huggins RA. Practical hydration solutions for sports. Nutrients. 2019 Jul 9;11(7):1550.
- ↑ Seal AD, Kavouras SA. A review of risk factors and prevention strategies for exercise-associated hyponatremia. Autonomic Neuroscience. 2022 Mar 1;238:102930.
- ↑ Carlton A, Orr RM. The effects of fluid loss on physical performance: A critical review. Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2015 Dec 1;4(4):357-63.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Bonilla DA, Pérez-Idárraga A, Odriozola-Martínez A, Kreider RB. The 4R’s framework of nutritional strategies for post-exercise recovery: A review with emphasis on new generation of carbohydrates. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2021 Jan;18(1):103.