Joint Range of Motion During Gait: Difference between revisions

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* The swing phase occupies 60-100% (total<span class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loudon_4-3"></span> 40%) of the gait cycle, during which the foot is not touching the walking surface and the bodyweight is borne by the other leg and foot.<ref name=":1">Loudon J, et al. The clinical orthopedic assessment guide. 2nd ed. Kansas: Human Kinetics, 2008. p.395-408.</ref>
* The swing phase occupies 60-100% (total<span class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loudon_4-3"></span> 40%) of the gait cycle, during which the foot is not touching the walking surface and the bodyweight is borne by the other leg and foot.<ref name=":1">Loudon J, et al. The clinical orthopedic assessment guide. 2nd ed. Kansas: Human Kinetics, 2008. p.395-408.</ref>
* In a complete two-step cycle, both feet are in contact with the floor at the same time for about 25% of the time. This part of the cycle is called the double-support phase.<ref name=":4" />
* In a complete two-step cycle, both feet are in contact with the floor at the same time for about 25% of the time. This part of the cycle is called the double-support phase.<ref name=":4" />
* Gait cycle phases: the stance phase and the swing phase involves a combination of open and close chain activities.<ref name=":2">Shultz SJ et al. Examination of musculoskeletal injuries. 2nd ed, North Carolina: Human Kinetics, 2005. p55-60.</ref><ref name=":3">Hazari A, Maiya AG, Nagda TV. Kinematics and Kinetics of Gait. InConceptual Biomechanics and Kinesiology 2021 (pp. 181-196). Springer, Singapore.</ref>
* Gait cycle phases: the stance phase and the swing phase involve a combination of open and close chain activities.<ref name=":2">Shultz SJ et al. Examination of musculoskeletal injuries. 2nd ed, North Carolina: Human Kinetics, 2005. p55-60.</ref><ref name=":3">Hazari A, Maiya AG, Nagda TV. Kinematics and Kinetics of Gait. InConceptual Biomechanics and Kinesiology 2021 (pp. 181-196). Springer, Singapore.</ref>


Read more: [[The Gait Cycle]]
Read more: [[The Gait Cycle]]
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The stance and swing phases of gait can be subdivided into eight sub-phases.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />
The stance and swing phases of gait can be subdivided into eight sub-phases.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />


# Initial contact (Heel strike)
# Initial contact (heel strike)
# Foot flat (Loading response)
# Foot flat (loading response)
# Midstance (Single-leg support)
# Midstance (single-leg support)
# Heel off (Terminal stance)
# Heel off (terminal stance)
# Toe off (Preswing)
# Toe off (preswing)
# Initial sw<span class="reference" id="cite_ref-Shultz_3-1"></span>ing
# Initial sw<span class="reference" id="cite_ref-Shultz_3-1"></span>ing
# Mid swing
# Mid swing
# Late swing (Deceleration)
# Late swing (deceleration)


See below for a diagram of the gait cycle:[[File:Adapted Gait Cycle.jpg|thumb|alt=|center|800x800px]]
See below for a diagram of the gait cycle:[[File:Adapted Gait Cycle.jpg|thumb|alt=|center|800x800px]]
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The video below shares a 90-second description of the basics of the gait cycle:{{#ev:youtube|DP5-um6SvQI|400}}<ref>Nicole Comninellis. The Gait Cycle Animation. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=35&v=DP5-um6SvQI [last accessed 19.7.2022]</ref>
The video below shares a 90-second description of the basics of the gait cycle:{{#ev:youtube|DP5-um6SvQI|400}}<ref>Nicole Comninellis. The Gait Cycle Animation. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=35&v=DP5-um6SvQI [last accessed 19.7.2022]</ref>
== Range of Motion Involved in Gait Phases ==
== Range of Motion Involved in Gait Phases ==
'''Initial contact (Heel strike)'''  
'''Initial contact (heel strike)'''  


* 0% of gait cycle
* Occurs at 0% of gait cycle
* previously referred to as "heel strike", but in some pathological gaits heel strike may not be the initial instant<ref name=":4" />
* Previously referred to as "heel strike", but in some pathological gaits heel strike may not be the initial instant<ref name=":4" />


*Function:
*Function:
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|average 20° of flexion
|average 20° of flexion
|}
|}
'''Foot flat (Loading response)'''  
'''Foot flat (loading response)'''  


* 8-10% of gait cycle
* Occurs at 8-10% of gait cycle


*Function:  
*Function:  
**weight acceptance and shock absorption
**Weight acceptance and shock absorption
*
*
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


'''Midstance (Single-leg support)'''
'''Midstance (single-leg support)'''


* The greater trochanter is vertically above the mid-point of the foot
* The greater trochanter is vertically above the mid-point of the foot
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|}
|}


'''Heel off (Terminal stance)'''
'''Heel off (terminal stance)'''


* 30-40% of gait cycle
* Occurs at around 30-40% of gait cycle


* Function
* Function
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|}
|}


'''Toe off (Preswing)'''
'''Toe off (preswing)'''


* 60% of gait cycle (final phase of stance)
* Occurs at 60% of gait cycle (final phase of stance)


*Function
*Function
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|+
Range of Motion Requirements During Toe Off
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements During Toe Off
!Body part
!Body part
!ROM requirements
!ROM requirements
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'''Early swing'''
'''Early swing'''


* 60-75% of gait cycle (beginning of swing phase)
* Occurs at 60-75% of gait cycle (beginning of swing phase)
* Toe off until the swinging limb is even with the stance limb
* Toe off until the swinging limb is even with the stance limb


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'''Mid swing'''
'''Mid swing'''


* 75-85% of gait cycle
* Occurs at 75-85% of gait cycle
* Swinging limb is opposite the stance limb
* Swinging limb is opposite the stance limb


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'''Late swing'''
'''Late swing'''


* 85-100% of gait cycle
* Occurs at 85-100% of gait cycle
* Tibia vertical to initial contact
* Tibia vertical to initial contact
* Function
* Function
** To decelerate lower extremity to establish contact with the ground
** To decelerate the lower extremity to establish contact with the ground
***
***


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== Maximum Values ==
== Maximum Values ==
It is important for clinicians to be aware of the maximum range of motion values necessary as the minimum prerequisites for a normal gait pattern.<ref>Kopelovich, A. Joint Range of Motion during Gait. Course. Plus. 2022</ref>It is also important to know during which subphase of the gait cycle these ranges of motion occur as this will aid in gait analysis and observing for specific gait pathology.  
It is important for clinicians to be aware of the maximum range of motion values necessary as the minimum prerequisites for a normal gait pattern.<ref>Kopelovich, A. Joint Range of Motion during Gait. Course. Plus. 2022</ref> It is also important to know during which subphase of the gait cycle these ranges of motion occur as this will aid in gait analysis and observing for specific gait pathology.  
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|+
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=== '''Definitions''' ===
=== '''Definitions''' ===
* Ground reaction force (GRF) = forces applied by the ground to the foot, when the foot is in contact with the ground<ref>Elhafez SM, Ashour AA, Elhafez NM, Elhafez GM, Abdelmohsen AM. Percentage contribution of lower limb moments to vertical ground reaction force in normal gait. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine. 2019 Jun 1;18(2):90-6.</ref>  
* Ground reaction force (GRF) = forces applied by the ground to the foot, when the foot is in contact with the ground<ref>Elhafez SM, Ashour AA, Elhafez NM, Elhafez GM, Abdelmohsen AM. Percentage contribution of lower limb moments to vertical ground reaction force in normal gait. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine. 2019 Jun 1;18(2):90-6.</ref>  
** creates an external plantarflexion or dorsiflexion torque
** Creates an external plantarflexion or dorsiflexion torque
** If GRF is anterior to the joint axis - this causes an anterior motion of the proximal segment
** If GRF is anterior to the joint axis - this causes an anterior motion of the proximal segment
** If GRF is posterior to the joint axis - this causes a posterior motion of the proximal segment
** If GRF is posterior to the joint axis - this causes a posterior motion of the proximal segment
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* Read more: [[Gait Definitions]]
* Read more: [[Gait Definitions]]


=== '''Initial contact (Heel strike)''' ===
=== '''Initial contact (heel strike)''' ===
* Ankle  
* Ankle  
** At initial contact - lateral calcaneus strikes the ground first.
** At initial contact - lateral calcaneus strikes the ground first.
** Ground reaction forces are slightly posterior to the axis of rotation of the foot and ankle joint - creates a plantarflexion moment at the ankle.<ref name=":3" />
** Ground reaction forces are slightly posterior to the axis of rotation of the foot and ankle joint. This creates a plantarflexion moment at the ankle.<ref name=":3" />
** Ankle dorsiflexors oppose this plantarflexor torque - internal torque controlled by tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis.<ref name=":4" />
** Ankle dorsiflexors oppose this plantarflexor torque - internal torque controlled by tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis.<ref name=":4" />


* Knee   
* Knee   
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** Utilise extensor musculature - gluteal musculature - to oppose/control the progression or external torque.  
** Utilise extensor musculature - gluteal musculature - to oppose/control the progression or external torque.  


=== '''Foot flat (Loading response)''' ===
=== '''Foot flat (loading response)''' ===
* Ankle   
* Ankle   
** Centre of pressure remains at the posterior calcaneus - GRF remains posterior to the ankle.<ref name=":3" />
** Centre of pressure remains at the posterior calcaneus - GRF remains posterior to the ankle.<ref name=":3" />
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* Knee  
* Knee  
** Range of motion moves from 0-15°
** Range of motion moves from 0-15°.
** GRF posterior to the axis of rotation of the knee joint - creates a flexion torque.<ref name=":3" />
** GRF posterior to the axis of rotation of the knee joint - creates a flexion torque.<ref name=":3" />
** Utilise extensor musculature to control knee from moving into flexion.
** Utilise extensor musculature to control knee from moving into flexion.


=== '''Midstance (Single-leg support)''' ===
=== '''Midstance (single-leg support)''' ===
* Ankle   
* Ankle   
** GRF creates a clockwise torque of the proximal segment (on top of distal segment) - causing a dorsiflexion moment at the talocrural joint.<ref name=":3" />
** GRF creates a clockwise torque of the proximal segment (on top of distal segment) - causing a dorsiflexion moment at the talocrural joint.<ref name=":3" />
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** Utilise flexors to oppose extension torque.  
** Utilise flexors to oppose extension torque.  


=== '''Heel off (Terminal stance)''' ===
=== '''Heel off (terminal stance)''' ===
* Ankle  
* Ankle  
** GRF is anterior to the axis of rotation of ankle joint - wants tibia to flex on talus.<ref name=":3" />
** GRF is anterior to the axis of rotation of the ankle joint - wants tibia to flex on talus.<ref name=":3" />
** Creates external dorsiflexion moment at talocrural joint.  
** Creates external dorsiflexion moment at talocrural joint.  
** Utilise plantarflexors to oppose this moment.  
** Utilise plantarflexors to oppose this moment.  
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** Counteracted by internal flexor moment.  
** Counteracted by internal flexor moment.  


=== '''Toe off (Preswing)''' ===
=== '''Toe off (preswing)''' ===
* Ankle   
* Ankle   
** Centre of pressure/GRF stay anterior to axis of rotation of ankle joint.<ref name=":3" />
** Centre of pressure/GRF stay anterior to axis of rotation of the ankle joint.<ref name=":3" />
** Creates an external dorsiflexion moment.  
** Creates an external dorsiflexion moment.  
** Counteracted by internal plantarflexion moment.  
** Counteracted by an internal plantarflexion moment.


* Knee   
* Knee   
** GRF is posterior to axis of rotation of knee joint as knee is moving into flexion.<ref name=":3" />
** GRF is posterior to axis of rotation of knee joint as the knee is moving into flexion.<ref name=":3" />
** Creates an external flexion moment.  
** Creates an external flexion moment.  
** Counteracted by an internal extensor (quadricep musculature) moment.  
** Counteracted by an internal extensor (quadricep musculature) moment.  


* Hip   
* Hip   
** GRF is posterior to axis of rotation of hip joint as hip is moving into extension.<ref name=":3" />
** GRF is posterior to the axis of rotation of the hip joint as the hip is moving into extension.<ref name=":3" />
** Creates a posterior pelvic tilt.  
** Creates a posterior pelvic tilt.  
** Utilise flexor musculature (iliopsoas) to counteract this moment.  
** Utilise flexor musculature (iliopsoas) to counteract this moment.  
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'''Ankle:'''
'''Ankle:'''


* Initial contact/Foot flat - dorsiflexion torque  
* Initial contact/foot flat - dorsiflexion torque
* Heel off - plantarflexion torque (gastrocnemius/soleus active)
* Heel off - plantarflexion torque (gastrocnemius/soleus active)


Revision as of 03:42, 22 September 2022

Original Editor - Rachel Celentano based on the course by Alexandra Kopelovich

Top Contributors - Rachel Celentano, Wanda van Niekerk and Jess Bell  

Introduction[edit | edit source]

Merriam-Webster dictionary defines gait as “a manner of walking or moving on foot."[1] It involves the interaction between the nervous, musculoskeletal, and cardiorespiratory systems and is heavily impacted by human age, personality, mood, and sociocultural factors.[2][3] Normal gait function is determined by the optimal operation of the following: “locomotor function (for initiating and sustaining rhythmic gait), balance, postural reflexes, sensory function and sensorimotor integration, motor control, the musculoskeletal apparatus and cardiopulmonary functions."[2][4]

Stance Versus Swing Phase[edit | edit source]

The normal forward stride consists of two phases: the stance phase and the swing phase.[5]

  • The stance phase occupies 0-60% of the gait cycle, during which one leg and foot are bearing most or all of the body weight.[6]
  • The swing phase occupies 60-100% (total 40%) of the gait cycle, during which the foot is not touching the walking surface and the bodyweight is borne by the other leg and foot.[7]
  • In a complete two-step cycle, both feet are in contact with the floor at the same time for about 25% of the time. This part of the cycle is called the double-support phase.[6]
  • Gait cycle phases: the stance phase and the swing phase involve a combination of open and close chain activities.[8][9]

Read more: The Gait Cycle

Phases of Gait[edit | edit source]

The stance and swing phases of gait can be subdivided into eight sub-phases.[6][9]

  1. Initial contact (heel strike)
  2. Foot flat (loading response)
  3. Midstance (single-leg support)
  4. Heel off (terminal stance)
  5. Toe off (preswing)
  6. Initial swing
  7. Mid swing
  8. Late swing (deceleration)

See below for a diagram of the gait cycle:

The video below shares a 90-second description of the basics of the gait cycle:

[10]

Range of Motion Involved in Gait Phases[edit | edit source]

Initial contact (heel strike)

  • Occurs at 0% of gait cycle
  • Previously referred to as "heel strike", but in some pathological gaits heel strike may not be the initial instant[6]
  • Function:
    • To establish contact with surface and initiate weight acceptance[11]
Range of Motion (ROM) at Initial Contact
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 0° (neutral position)
Knee 0° (full extension)
Hip average 20° of flexion

Foot flat (loading response)

  • Occurs at 8-10% of gait cycle
  • Function:
    • Weight acceptance and shock absorption
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements during Foot Flat
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 0-5° plantarflexion
Knee 15° of flexion
Hip 15° of flexion (hip is moving into extension)

Midstance (single-leg support)

  • The greater trochanter is vertically above the mid-point of the foot
  • Function:
    • Single limb support and stability
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements during Midstance
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 5° of dorsiflexion
Knee 5° of flexion
Hip 0° of flexion (neutral position)

Heel off (terminal stance)

  • Occurs at around 30-40% of gait cycle
  • Function
    • Single limb support, stability, and propulsion
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements during Heel Off
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 0° (neutral position)
Knee 0° of flexion (complete extension)
Hip 10-20° of hyperextension

Toe off (preswing)

  • Occurs at 60% of gait cycle (final phase of stance)
  • Function
    • Final burst of propulsion to propel the body forward
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements During Toe Off
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 20° of plantarflexion
Knee 30° of flexion
Hip 10-20° of hyperextension

Early swing

  • Occurs at 60-75% of gait cycle (beginning of swing phase)
  • Toe off until the swinging limb is even with the stance limb
  • Function
    • To propel the lower extremity forward and shorten the stance limb
Range of Motion Requirements during Early Swing
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 10° of plantarflexion
Knee 60° of flexion
Hip moves into 20° of flexion

Mid swing

  • Occurs at 75-85% of gait cycle
  • Swinging limb is opposite the stance limb
  • Function
    • To clear lower extremity from the ground in order to advance into initial contact
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements during Mid Swing
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 0° (neutral position)
Knee moves into 30° of flexion
Hip 30° of flexion (hip is moving into extension)

Late swing

  • Occurs at 85-100% of gait cycle
  • Tibia vertical to initial contact
  • Function
    • To decelerate the lower extremity to establish contact with the ground
Range of Motion (ROM) Requirements during Late Swing
Body part ROM requirements
Ankle 0° (neutral position)
Knee 0° (complete extension)
Hip 30° of flexion

The following video describes the range of motion requirements involved in the different gait phases:

Range of Motion during Gait [12]

Maximum Values[edit | edit source]

It is important for clinicians to be aware of the maximum range of motion values necessary as the minimum prerequisites for a normal gait pattern.[13] It is also important to know during which subphase of the gait cycle these ranges of motion occur as this will aid in gait analysis and observing for specific gait pathology.

Maximum Range of Motion (ROM) at Lower Extremity Joints during the Gait Cycle
Body part Maximum ROM values
Hip 20° of extension; 20° of flexion
Knee 0° (complete extension); 60° of flexion
Ankle 5° of dorsiflexion; 20° of plantarflexion

Gait Kinetics[edit | edit source]

Definitions[edit | edit source]

  • Ground reaction force (GRF) = forces applied by the ground to the foot, when the foot is in contact with the ground[14]
    • Creates an external plantarflexion or dorsiflexion torque
    • If GRF is anterior to the joint axis - this causes an anterior motion of the proximal segment
    • If GRF is posterior to the joint axis - this causes a posterior motion of the proximal segment
    • Read more: Ground Reaction Forces
  • Lower extremity gait musculature - creates an internal torque
  • Centre of pressure - point of application of pressure to the foot segment
  • Read more: Gait Definitions

Initial contact (heel strike)[edit | edit source]

  • Ankle
    • At initial contact - lateral calcaneus strikes the ground first.
    • Ground reaction forces are slightly posterior to the axis of rotation of the foot and ankle joint. This creates a plantarflexion moment at the ankle.[9]
    • Ankle dorsiflexors oppose this plantarflexor torque - internal torque controlled by tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis.[6]
  • Knee
    • At initial contact - GRF is anterior to the knee joint creating anterior rotation of the femur.[9]
    • GRF wants to move into extension.
    • Utilise flexor musculature - hamstrings - in order to control progression.
  • Hip
    • GRF is anterior to hip joint - creating an external torque (anterior rotation) at the pelvis.[9]
    • Utilise extensor musculature - gluteal musculature - to oppose/control the progression or external torque.

Foot flat (loading response)[edit | edit source]

  • Ankle
    • Centre of pressure remains at the posterior calcaneus - GRF remains posterior to the ankle.[9]
    • Utilise dorsiflexors to prevent plantarflexion from occurring at the ankle.
  • Hip
    • Centre of pressure and GRF remains the same - anterior to the axis of rotation.[9]
    • Anterior pelvic tilt creates a flexion torque.
    • Utilise extensor musculature to control this torque.
  • Knee
    • Range of motion moves from 0-15°.
    • GRF posterior to the axis of rotation of the knee joint - creates a flexion torque.[9]
    • Utilise extensor musculature to control knee from moving into flexion.

Midstance (single-leg support)[edit | edit source]

  • Ankle
    • GRF creates a clockwise torque of the proximal segment (on top of distal segment) - causing a dorsiflexion moment at the talocrural joint.[9]
    • Utilise plantarflexors to oppose the external torque.
  • Knee
    • GRF creates an anterior (clockwise) torque of proximal segment (on top of distal segment) - wants to move into extension by femur moving anteriorly on tibia.[9]
    • Utilise flexors to oppose this torque - activates hamstrings.
  • Hip
    • GRF is posterior to the axis of rotation - wants pelvis to move into a posterior pelvic tilt (extension).[9]
    • Utilise flexors to oppose extension torque.

Heel off (terminal stance)[edit | edit source]

  • Ankle
    • GRF is anterior to the axis of rotation of the ankle joint - wants tibia to flex on talus.[9]
    • Creates external dorsiflexion moment at talocrural joint.
    • Utilise plantarflexors to oppose this moment.
  • Knee
    • GRF is anterior to knee joint - pulls femur into extension, creating an external extensor torque.[9]
    • Counteracted by internal flexor torque.
  • Hip
    • GRF is posterior to hip joint - creates an external extensor moment.[9]
    • Counteracted by internal flexor moment.

Toe off (preswing)[edit | edit source]

  • Ankle
    • Centre of pressure/GRF stay anterior to axis of rotation of the ankle joint.[9]
    • Creates an external dorsiflexion moment.
    • Counteracted by an internal plantarflexion moment.
  • Knee
    • GRF is posterior to axis of rotation of knee joint as the knee is moving into flexion.[9]
    • Creates an external flexion moment.
    • Counteracted by an internal extensor (quadricep musculature) moment.
  • Hip
    • GRF is posterior to the axis of rotation of the hip joint as the hip is moving into extension.[9]
    • Creates a posterior pelvic tilt.
    • Utilise flexor musculature (iliopsoas) to counteract this moment.

Internal Torque Peaks[edit | edit source]

The sagittal internal torque peaks at the hip, knee and ankle are[15]:

Hip:

  • Foot flat - extensor torque
  • Heel off - flexor torque

Knee:

  • Initial contact - flexor torque (hamstring musculature active)
  • Foot flat - extensor torque (quadriceps musculature active)
  • Heel off - flexor torque (hamstring musculature active)

Ankle:

  • Initial contact/foot flat - dorsiflexion torque
  • Heel off - plantarflexion torque (gastrocnemius/soleus active)

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Merriam-Webster. Gait. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gait [last accessed 23.6.2022]
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Pirker W, Katzenschlager R. Gait disorders in adults and the elderly. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift. 2017 Feb 1;129(3-4):81-95. Available from:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5318488/ [last accessed 25.6.2022]
  3. ↑ Das R, Paul S, Mourya GK, Kumar N, Hussain M. Recent Trends and Practices Toward Assessment and Rehabilitation of Neurodegenerative Disorders: Insights From Human Gait. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2022;16.
  4. ↑ Mirelman A, Shema S, Maidan I, Hausdorff JM. Gait. Handbook of clinical neurology. 2018 Jan 1;159:119-34.
  5. ↑ Cicirelli G, Impedovo D, Dentamaro V, Marani R, Pirlo G, D’Orazio TR. Human gait analysis in neurodegenerative diseases: a review. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics. 2021 Jun 28;26(1):229-42.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Magee DJ, Manske RC. Orthopedic physical assessment-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2020 Dec 11.
  7. ↑ Loudon J, et al. The clinical orthopedic assessment guide. 2nd ed. Kansas: Human Kinetics, 2008. p.395-408.
  8. ↑ Shultz SJ et al. Examination of musculoskeletal injuries. 2nd ed, North Carolina: Human Kinetics, 2005. p55-60.
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 Hazari A, Maiya AG, Nagda TV. Kinematics and Kinetics of Gait. InConceptual Biomechanics and Kinesiology 2021 (pp. 181-196). Springer, Singapore.
  10. ↑ Nicole Comninellis. The Gait Cycle Animation. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=35&v=DP5-um6SvQI [last accessed 19.7.2022]
  11. ↑ Webster JB, Darter BJ. Principles of normal and pathologic gait. InAtlas of Orthoses and Assistive Devices 2019 Jan 1 (pp. 49-62). Elsevier.
  12. ↑ Alexandra Kopelovich. Gait Range of Motion. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Z6shSu96CM [last accessed 19.7.2022]
  13. ↑ Kopelovich, A. Joint Range of Motion during Gait. Course. Plus. 2022
  14. ↑ Elhafez SM, Ashour AA, Elhafez NM, Elhafez GM, Abdelmohsen AM. Percentage contribution of lower limb moments to vertical ground reaction force in normal gait. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine. 2019 Jun 1;18(2):90-6.
  15. ↑ Neumann DA. Neumann Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: Foundations for Rehabilitation. St Louis: Mosby: 2010.
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