Jump to content

Animal vs. Plant Based Protein for Muscle Growth

Original Editor - Kapil Narale

Top Contributors - Kapil Narale, Lucinda hampton, Kim Jackson and Tolulope Adeniji  

Introduction

Skeletal muscles are an important part of the body, especially when considering metabolism [1], and energy storage and production. [2] For individuals who want to maintain their muscle mass, there needs to be a balance between muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein breakdown. For individuals who want to gain muscle mass, muscle protein synthesis needs to be in excess. Strength/resistance training is a facilitator for increasing muscle strength and muscle protein synthesis, however muscle protein breakdown is concurrently occurring. [3][4]

In addition to muscle mass and strength, dietary protein may have a beneficial effect on cardiovascular health. It can aid in weight loss and maintenance, an improved lipid/lipoprotein profile, and decreasing blood pressure. [5] [6][7]

There is a growing debate on whether animal based protein, or plant-based protein is more effective in gaining muscle mass and strength. This topic will be further explored. [8]

Current Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for adults is 0.8g of protein/kg of body weight, but there can be more flexibility in meal planning for one's requirements and preferences, since the generally accepted macronutrient distribution ranges from 10-35% of total calories from protein. [9][10]

It is interesting to note that there is a different RDA for each essential amino acid, which can be met by a variety of foods, without emphasising animal vs plant based protein. [9]

It was recommended, in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, to consume more plant-based sources in their diet. Such types of plant base protein sources include beans/legumes, whole grains, nuts/seeds, and vegetables, all of which are sources of plant protein. [11] It was noted in the 2015 Guidelines that empty calories from added sugars be substituted by sources of plant protein. [12]

Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle is very important in the body as it has important functions. It is what produces movement in the body, and also assists physical stability. It is important in metabolism, as it supplies amino acids in the post absorptive state for tissue building and maintenance. [1] It is also the main site for glucose uptake and storage. [2]

Loss of muscle mass has significant negative effects. A low muscle mass can lead to increased morbidity, lower quality of life, and an increased risk of mortality. [13] In addition, an increased mortality risk is highly likely in individuals with low muscle strength. [14][15] As one ages, there is a decline in muscle mass and muscle strength, and can be seen at different rates in different populations. [16][17][18] It is possible that the breakdown of muscle protein in older adults may be affected by insufficient nutritional intake, or an impaired nutrient and hormone response. [19] This muscle loss is known as sarcopenia, and can be considered a muscle disease. [20] The commencement of sarcopenia occurs after the peak muscle mass and strength has been reached in early adulthood. Any mechanisms used to preserve the muscle mass and strength in future years will be beneficial. [21]

There needs to be a balance between muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein breakdown to maintain muscle mass. There will only be growth in muscle when muscle protein synthesis exceeds muscle protein breakdown. There is an increase in muscle protein synthesis with strength training/resistance exercise, however there is still a negative protein balance since muscle protein breakdown is also increased. [3][4]

Consumption of dietary protein must take place for a net positive balance in muscle protein [4]

It is seen that as individuals age, especially after the age of 50, there is a significant but gradual decrease in muscle mass and strength. [20] [22] Muscles of younger individuals are more responsive to muscle protein synthesis of essential amino acids compared to muscles of older individuals. [23]

See the Skeletal Muscle page for more physiological and anatomy related information.

Animal vs. Plant Based Diet

  1. Animal protein: generally thought to have a higher protein quality compared plant-based protein for graining muscle mass. [24] [25][26] Protein quality is indicative of the composition of amino acids, and its ease of digestion, absorption, and utilisation for the body's functioning. [27] Animal protein provides all the essential amino acids in adequate amounts, and can be easily digested. Essential Amino Acids can facilitate the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling pathway, which produces a increase in muscle protein synthesis. [28][29]
  2. Plant-based protein (and soy): lacks certain essential amino acids. [30] [31] This may result in their amino acids being led towards the synthesis of urea, rather than the synthesis of muscle protein. [30] As well, it is seen that plant-based protein is not as digestible as animal protein. This may be caused by variations in protein structure, thus can effect the likelihood of protein buildup. [32] It is possible that individuals who take in a higher amount of animal protein have a higher loss, or a lower gain, in bodyweight or fat in the long term, since percent lean mass is a consideration for bodyweight. This occurs since the consumption of animal based protein leads to an increased energy expenditure than plant-based protein, which may be due to the increased effect of muscle protein synthesis. [31] A higher percent lean body mass helps to indicate a minimisation of disease risk, such as metabolic syndrome, and reduced mortality risk within middle-aged Women. [33]

Li et al analysed the diet of over 3200 Community-dwelling adults, and did not notice a relation between the ratio of animal to plant protein consumed and the lean mass of study subjects, as indicated by Skeletal Mass Index (SMI). However, there is a significant association between total intake and SMI. Higher SMI was noted with a protein intake greater than the Recommended Daily Value. [34]

However, it is evident that healthcare professionals are encouraging the use of plant-based protein, instead of the use of red meat, to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. [35] The use of plant-based protein is also more environmentally friendly as it reduces greenhouse gases, since the production of animal protein requires the use of more resources. [36]

A study indicated that soy protein has similar effects to animal protein with gaining muscle mass and strength with the resistance training, but was unspecific in defining the age group. [37] Lim et al (2021) found no difference in the role for protein source on alterations in fat free mass.

Anabolic resistance, is seen to occur in the older adult and aging population, where there is a diminished response of muscle protein synthesis with the consumption of protein. [38] [39] This could be due to reduced physical activity, prolonged disuse of muscle, or chronic inflammation. [40] It is possible that muscle protein synthesis in older adults could be accelerated with higher doses of protein, however including more essential amino acids will not increase muscle protein synthesis at the same rate as in younger individuals. [41] It seems that Vitamin D may be important with maintaining muscle mass in middle-aged and older individuals. [42]

In a systematic review by Lim et al (2021), it is seen that, in general, the consumption of animal or plant based protein showed an increase in lean mass and strength. However, there were greater gains for absolute lean mass and percent lean mass with animal protein compared to plant based protein, while findings for strength gains were uncertain. The meta-analysis revealed that although animal protein presented with a higher lean mass value, the results were not statistically significant. There was a notable gain of 0.41kg lean mass from animal protein in individuals younger than 50 years old. There was a significant increase in absolute and percent lean mass in adults younger than 50 with the consumption of animal based protein. When considering resistance training, there was no significant difference between protein source when considering absolute and percent lean mass, and did not affect changes in lean mass. [8]

On the contrary, it s currently believed that plant protein is a healthy option as it provides the daily recommended protein needs, despite that plant protein was once seen as a less nutritious and an incomplete source of essential amino acids.

It is seen that resistance training is a large contributor to increasing muscle strength rather than protein supplementation. [43] It is interesting to note that there is no difference between animal and plant protein on the effect of muscle mass with resistance training. [8]

When considering a 1-RM squat, grip strength, knee extension, and knee flexion, there was no significant difference with muscle strength with the consumption of animal-based protein or plant-based protein. [8]

Without resistance training, it is shown that the consumption of protein higher than the recommended daily allowance did not produce significant alterations in lean mass over a prolonged period. [44] It was found that having only protein sources, without the use of resistance exercise training, did not have an effect on absolute and percent lean mass. Resistance training can delay the absence of muscle synthesis, even with the availability of amino acids, for more than 24h. It can be said there there is a greater muscle growth with the combination of resistance exercise and consumption of protein, rather than only protein alone. [45]

Cardiovascular Disease Risk

Dietary protein are generally categorised between animal or plant based origin. There may be differing effects and risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) when consuming animal versus plant based sources for protein. It is seen that with a greater intake of protein-rich foods may come with the consequence of having less consumption of other nutrients, which may contribute to CVD risk. The effects on health from these certain foods may not only be due to the protein content. There may be macronutrients or micronutrients provided by fruits, vegetables, or grains, and thus the source of protein should to be considered.

There is evidence that CVD risk can be reduced with a plant based protein diet and unprocessed animal-based protein with low saturated fats, compared to an American style diet which heavily consists of animal based sources with processed meats and higher saturated fats. [46]

It is seen that individuals who have a plant-based diet (herbivores) have a lower blood pressure and plasma cholesterol thn individuals who have an animal-based diet. [47][48][49] The lower blood pressure was was mainly found in individuals who are non-smokers, consume less alcohol, have a lower body weight, be more physically active , and adopt a healthier diet, thus would result in a lower blood pressure as well. These respective dietary lifestyles consist of whole foods rather than individual nutrients, thus it is understandable that the consumption of fruits ad vegetable, nutrients such as fiber, magnesium, and potassium, in plant-based foods are all consumed in a plant-protein diet. ([50] 12) Since the plant protein consists of macronutrients and micronutrients, and more than just protein, it cannot be concluded that the sole cause of a lower blood pressure is due to the plant-based protein. There seems to be a better relation between plant-based protein and lower blood pressure. (16) It is interesting to note that studies in rural Japanese and Chinese populations have found an inverse relationship between animal protein consumption and blood pressure. (18-20) However, a systematic review pointed out that such an association more likely occurs with plant-based protein. (21) It is found that a high vegetable and low-carbohydrate diet lead to a lower CVD mortality, and would be contrary with an animal-based diet. (29)

It is seen that different protein sources have varying coronary heart disease (CHD) risk (26), and cardiovascular disease mortality (30)

A study by Sinha et al (2009), showed that red meat and processed meat was correlated with a significant increase with total, cancer, and CVD mortality. It was found that if the consumption of red meat was reduced to the amount consumed at the first quintile, CVD mortality would decrease by 11% in Men and 26% in Women. (25) In addition to the CHD risk with red meat a study by Bernstein et al (2009) found that high-fat dairy was correlated with a higher risk of CHD. An increased consumption of poultry, fish, and nuts was correlated to a decreased risk of CHD. (26)

When considering Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD), it was found, by Preis et al (2010), that plant-protein decreased the risk of fatal IHD. It was also found that in healthy Men, increased consumption of total and animal protein led to a higher risk of IHD. (27) In another study by Preis et al (2010), it was found that when considering the consumption of any type of protein had no asspciation with a risk of stroke. However there is a noticeable positive association of total protein and the risk of ischemic stroke inMen with hypercholesterolemia. (28)

When a serving of the red meat is replaced by a plant protein source, there is a decrease in CHD risk by 7-30%. (26)(30) High fat red meat have a higher level of saturated fats and cholesterol. (35) There is a higher CVD risk with red meat that is processed. (25, 26, 36)

A study by Fung et al (2010), showed that animal protein with low carbohydrates had a higher association with CVD mortality. On the other hand, a high vegetable with a low carbohydrates was associated with low CVD mortality. (29) In a study from Pan et al (2012), considering processed and unprocessed red meat, there was an association of a greater CVD risk with either processed or unprocessed red meat. With less than half a serving, 8.6% of CVD deaths would be reduced in Men and 12.2% would be prevented in Women. (30) In a study by (Rohrmann et al, 2013), when red meat, processed meat, and white meat wee considered, it was found that processed meat had an association with a higher all-cause mortality from CVD and cancer. there would be a 3.3% reduction of deaths with reducing processed meat to less than 20g/day. (31) A study by Kaluza et al (2014) showed that there was a positive association between processed meat and increased risk of heart failure. An increase in 50gof processed meat per day led to an increase of 8%in the incidence of heart failure. and the mortality from heart failure increased by 38%.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Wolfe R.R. The underappreciated role of muscle in health and disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2006:84:475–482.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Meyer C, Dostou J.M, Welle S.L, Gerich J.E. Role of human liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle in postprandial glucose homeostasis. American Journal of Physiological Metabolism: 2002:282: E419–E427.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Tipton K.D, Wolfe R.R. Exercise, protein metabolism, and muscle growth. International Journal of Sport Nutrition & Exercise Metabolism. 2001:11:109–132.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Kumar, V.; Atherton, P.; Smith, K.; Rennie, M.J. Human muscle protein synthesis and breakdown during and after exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2009:106:2026–2039.
  5. ↑ Hu FB. Protein, body weight, and cardiovascular health. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2005:82(1):242S–247S.
  6. ↑ Leidy H.J, Clifton P.M, Astrup A, Wycherley T.P, Westerterp-Plantenga M.S, Luscombe-Marsh N.D, Woods S.C, Mattes R.D. The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2015:101:1320S–1329S.
  7. ↑ Vasdev S, Stuckless J. Antihypertensive effects of dietary protein and its mechanism. International Journal of Angiology. 2010:19:e7–e20.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Lim M.T, Pan B.J, Toh D.W.K, Sutanto C.N, Kim J.E. Animal Protein versus Plant Protein in Supporting Lean Mass and Muscle Strength: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2021:13:661-679.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. Washington (DC): Institute of Medicine. 2005.
  10. ↑ Rodriguez N.R, Miller S.L. Effective translation of current dietary guidance: understanding and communicating the concepts of minimal and optimal levels of dietary protein. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2015:101:1353S–1358S.
  11. ↑ US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010. Washington (DC): USDA and US Department of Health and Human Services: 2010.
  12. ↑ Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Washington (DC): Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion:2015.
  13. ↑ Prado C.M, Purcell S.A, Alish C, Pereira S.L, Deutz N.E, Heyland D.K, Goodpaster B.H, Tappenden K.A, Heymsfield S.B. Implications of low muscle mass across the continuum of care: A narrative review. Annuals of Medicine. 2018:50:675–693.
  14. ↑ Prado C.M, Purcell S.A, Alish C, Pereira S.L, Deutz N.E, Heyland D.K, Goodpaster B.H, Tappenden K.A, Heymsfield S.B. Implications of low muscle mass across the continuum of care: A narrative review. Annuals in Medicine. 2018:50: 675–693.
  15. ↑ Newman A.B, Kupelian V, Visser M, Simonsick E.M, Goodpaster B.H, Kritchevsky S.B, Tylavsky F.A, Rubin S.M, Harris T.B. Strength, But Not Muscle Mass, Is Associated With Mortality in the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study Cohort. Journal of Gerontology Series A: Biological Science and Medical Science. 2006:61:72–77.
  16. ↑ Chen L, Nelson D.R, Zhao Y, Cui Z.A, Johnston J. Relationship between muscle mass and muscle strength, and the impact of comorbidities: A population-based, cross-sectional study of older adults in the United States. BMC Geriatrics: 2013:13:74.
  17. ↑ Landi F, Calvani R, Tosato M, Martone A.M, Fusco D, Sisto A, Ortolani E, Savera G, Salini S, Marzetti E. Age-Related Variations of Muscle Mass, Strength, and Physical Performance in Community-Dwellers: Results From the Milan EXPO Survey. Journal of American Medicine Directors Association. 2017:18:88:e17–88,e24.
  18. ↑ Hayashida I, Tanimoto Y, Takahashi Y, Kusabiraki T, Tamaki J. Correlation between Muscle Strength and Muscle Mass, and Their Association with Walking Speed, in Community-Dwelling Elderly Japanese Individuals. PLoS ONE. 2014:9:e111-810.
  19. ↑ Bauer J, Biolo G, Cederholm T, Cesari M, Cruz-Jentoft A.J, Morley J.E, Phillips S, Sieber C, Stehle P, Teta D, Visvanathan R, Volpi E, Boirie Y. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Optimal Dietary Protein Intake in Older People: A Position Paper From the PROT-AGE Study Group. Journal of American Medicine Directives Association. 2013:14:542–559.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Cruz-Jentoft A.J, Bahat G, Bauer J, Boirie Y, Bruyère O, Cederholm T, Cooper C, Landi F, Rolland Y, Sayer A.A, Schneider S.M, Sieber C.C, Topinkova E, Vandewoulde M, Visser M, Zamboni M. Sarcopenia: Revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing. 2019:48:16-31.
  21. ↑ Sayer A.A, Syddall H, Martin H, Patel H, Baylis D, Cooper C. The developmental origins of sarcopenia. Journal of Nutritional Health. Aging. 2008:12:427–432.
  22. ↑ Janssen, I, Heymsfield S.B, Wang Z, Ross R. Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2000:89:81–88.
  23. ↑ Breen L, Phillips S.M. Skeletal muscle protein metabolism in the elderly: Interventions to counteract the ’anabolic resistance’ of ageing. Nutritional Metabolism. 2011:8:68.
  24. ↑ Van Vliet S, Burd N.A, Van Loon L.J.C. The Skeletal Muscle Anabolic Response to Plant- versus Animal-Based Protein Consumption. Journal of Nutrition. 2015:145: 1981–1991.
  25. ↑ Gorissen S.H.M, Witard O.C. Characterising the muscle anabolic potential of dairy, meat and plant-based protein sources in older adults. Procedures in Nutritional Societies 2018:77:20–31.
  26. ↑ Berrazaga I, Micard V, Gueugneau M, Walrand S. The Role of the Anabolic Properties of Plant- versus Animal-Based Protein Sources in Supporting Muscle Mass Maintenance: A Critical Review. Nutrients. 2019:11:1825.
  27. ↑ Boye J, Wijesinha-Bettoni R, Burlingame B. Protein quality evaluation twenty years after the introduction of the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score method. British Journal of Nutrition. 2012:108:S183–S211.
  28. ↑ Fujita S, Dreyer H.C, Drummond M.J, Glynn E.L, Cadenas J.G, Yoshizawa F, Volpi E, Rasmussen B.B. Nutrient signalling in the regulation of human muscle protein synthesis. Journal of Physiology. 2007:582:813–823.
  29. ↑ Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe R.R. Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy older adults. American Journal in Clinical Nutrition. 2003:78:250–258.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Van Vliet S, Burd N.A, Van Loon L.J.C. The Skeletal Muscle Anabolic Response to Plant- versus Animal-Based Protein Consumption. Journal of Nutrition. 2015:145:1981–1991.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Gilbert J.-A, Bendsen N, Tremblay A, Astrup A. Effect of proteins from different sources on body composition. Nutritional Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2011:21:B16–B31.
  32. ↑ Berrazaga I, Micard V, Gueugneau M, Walrand S. The Role of the Anabolic Properties of Plant- versus Animal-Based Protein Sources in Supporting Muscle Mass Maintenance: A Critical Review. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1825.
  33. ↑ Bea J.W, Thomson C.A, Wertheim B.C, Nicholas J.S, Ernst K.C, Hu C, Jackson R.D, Cauley J.A, Lewis C.E, Caan B.J, Roe D.J, Chen. Risk of Mortality According to Body Mass Index and Body Composition Among Postmenopausal Women. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2015:182:585-596.
  34. ↑ Li C.-Y, Fang A.-P, Ma W.-J, Wu S.-L, Li C.-L, Chen Y.-M, Zhu H.-L. Amount Rather than Animal vs Plant Protein Intake Is Associated with Skeletal Muscle Mass in Community-Dwelling Middle-Aged and Older Chinese Adults: Results from the Guangzhou Nutrition and Health Study. Journal of Academic Nutritional Diet. 2019, 119, 1501–1510.
  35. ↑ Zhubi-Bakija F, Bajraktari G, Bytyçi I, Mikhailidis D.P, Henein M.Y, Latkovskis G, Rexhaj Z., Zhubi E, Banach M, Alnouri, F, on behalf of the International Lipid Expert Panel (ILEP). The impact of type of dietary protein, animal versus vegetable, in modifying cardiometabolic risk factors: A position paper from the International Lipid Expert Panel (ILEP). Clinical Nutrition. 2021:40:255–276.
  36. ↑ Fasolin L, Pereira R, Pinheiro A, Martins J, Andrade C, Ramos O, Vicente A. Emergent food proteins—Towards sustainability, health and innovation. Food Res. Int. 2019, 125, 108586.
  37. ↑ Messina M, Lynch H, Dickinson J.M, Reed K.E. No Difference between the Effects of Supplementing With Soy Protein Versus Animal Protein on Gains in Muscle Mass and Strength in Response to Resistance Exercise. International Journal of Sport Nutrition & Exercise Metabolism. 2018:28:674–685.
  38. ↑ Cuthbertson D, Smith K, Babraj J, Leese G, Waddell T, Atherton P, Wackerhage H, Taylor P.M, Rennie M.J. Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle. FASEB Journal, 2004:19:1–22.
  39. ↑ Wall B.T, Gorissen S.H, Pennings B, Koopman R, Groen B.B.L, Verdijk L.B, Van Loon L.J.C. Aging Is Accompanied by a Blunted Muscle Protein Synthetic Response to Protein Ingestion. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0140903.
  40. ↑ Shad, B.J, Thompson J.L, Breen L. Does the muscle protein synthetic response to exercise and amino acid-based nutrition diminish with advancing age? A systematic review. American Journal in Physiological Metabolism. 2016:311: E803–E817.
  41. ↑ Cuthbertson D, Smith K, Babraj J, Leese G, Waddell T, Atherton P, Wackerhage H, Taylor P.M, Rennie M.J. Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle. FASEB J. 2004, 19, 1–22.
  42. ↑ Cruz-Jentoft A.J, Hughes B.D, Scott D, Sanders K.M, Rizzoli R. Nutritional strategies for maintaining muscle mass and strength from middle age to later life: A narrative review. Maturitas. 2020:132:57–64.
  43. ↑ Morton R.W, Murphy K.T, McKellar S.R, Schoenfeld B.J, Henselmans M, Helms E, Aragon A.A, Devries M.C, Banfield L, Krieger J.W, Phillips S.M. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2018:52:376–384.
  44. ↑ Hudson J.L, Wang Y, Iii R.E.B, Campbell W.W. Protein Intake Greater than the RDA Differentially Influences Whole-Body Lean Mass Responses to Purposeful Catabolic and Anabolic Stressors: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Advanced Nutrition. 2020:11:548–558.
  45. ↑ Atherton P.J, Smith K. Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise. Journal of Physiology. 2012:590:1049–1057.
  46. ↑ Richter C.K, Skulas-Ray A.C, Catherine M Champagne C.M, Kris-Etherton P.M. Plant Protein and Animal Proteins: Do They Differentially Affect Cardiovascular Disease Risk? Advanced Nutrition. 2015:6:712–728.
  47. ↑ Sacks F.M, Rosner B, Kass E.H. Blood pressure in vegetarians. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1974:100:390–398.
  48. ↑ Armstrong B, van Merwyk AJ, Coates H. Blood pressure in Seventhday Adventist vegetarians. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1977:105:444–449.
  49. ↑ Sacks F.M, Castelli W.P, Donner A, Kass E.H. Plasma lipids and lipoproteins in vegetarians and controls. North England Journal of Medicine. 1975:292:1148–1151.
  50. ↑ Beilin L.J. Vegetarian and other complex diets, fats, fiber, and hypertension. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1994:59(5):1130S–1135S.
Retrieved from "https://www.physio-pedia.com/w/index.php?title=Animal_vs._Plant_Based_Protein_for_Muscle_Growth&oldid=367686"