Lumbar Spinal Stenosis

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Original Editors

Top Contributors - Donald John Auson, Astrid Lahousse, Stefanie Van De Vijver, Roxane Roosens, Kim Jackson, Pauline Bouten, George Prudden, Laure Lievens, Rosie Swift, Manisha Shrestha, Sai Kripa, Shreya Pavaskar, Ahmed M Diab, Mariam Hashem and Lucinda hampton  

Search Strategy

Databases Searched: Pubmed, Web of Knowledge, PEDro
Keywords: Low back pain, Spinal Stenosis, Physical therapy, Treatment, LSS, Management

Definition/Description

Lumbar spinal stenosis is a condition where the spinal canal (central stenosis) or one or more of the lumbar vertebral foramina (foraminal/lateral stenosis) becomes narrowed. If the narrowing is substantial, it can cause compression of the spinal cord or spinal nerves. Symptoms include low back pain, buttock pain, leg pain and numbness. These symptoms are typically aggravated by walking and relieved with rest. [1,3,12] Not all patients with spinal narrowing develop symptoms, so the term "spinal stenosis" refers to the symptoms of pain and not to the narrowing itself. [5]

Clinically Relevant Anatomy

Five lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5) make up the “lower back”. As demonstrated in the picture to the right, this is where the spine starts curving toward the abdomen.
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain.
This is the main pathway for information traveling from the brain to the peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter compared to the length of the bony spinal column. The spinal cord ends in the lower thoracic spine. The nerve roots from the lumbar and sacral levels continue from the bottom of the cord like a "horse's tail" (cauda equina) and then exit the spine.
There are 33 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord, and 5 lumbar segments that form 5 pairs of lumbar nerves. [7]

Epidemiology /Etiology

Some people are born with a small spinal canal. This is called "congenital stenosis”. However, spinal canal narrowing is most often due to age-related changes that take place over time. This condition is called "acquired spinal stenosis." Spinal stenosis is most common in people over 50 years of age. [14]
Acquired forms of LSS are further classified as degenerative, spondylolisthetic, iatrogenic (postsurgical), posttraumatic, or combined. [14]

Lumbar spinal stenosis can be caused by:

• osteoarthritis
• Inflammatory spondyloarthritis
• bulging of the disc
• thickening of the vertebral ligament
• tumor
• infection
• various metabolic bone disorders that cause bone growth, such as Paget's disease  [1,12,14]
  
  

Characteristics/Clinical Presentation

Patients typically present with radicular leg pain or neurogenic claudication. Neurogenic claudication is defined as pain, paresthesia and cramping in the buttocks and legs. Symptoms, which are posture-dependent, are worsened with extension of the lumbar spine or weight-bearing postures of the spine. Symptoms are decreased with flexion (sitting or bending forward) or non-weight-bearing postures of the spine. [2,8,12,14,15,16]
Patients may feel pain, cramping, weakness or numbness in the lower back and legs. [1,12] Pain may vary from a dull ache to dysesthetic or sharp and truly radicular. Symptoms may present as unilateral, but this is less common. Symptoms of spinal stenosis often start slowly and get worse over time. Pain in the legs may become so severe that walking, even short distances, is unbearable. Frequently, patients must sit or lean forward to temporarily ease pain. [1,12,15]

Differential Diagnosis

During the differential diagnosis, red-flag symptoms must be assessed. If such symptoms are present, further diagnostic workup is immediately warranted.

• cauda equina syndrome,
• fever,
• nocturnal pain,
• use of steroids,
• gait disturbance,
• structural deformity,
• history of carcinoma,
• unexplained weight loss,
• severe pain with recumbent position,
• recent trauma with suspicious fracture,
• presence of severe or progressive neurologic deficit [2]

Other pathologies/diseases that mimic lumbar spinal stenosis:

• degenerative hip joint (examination: Patrick and scour tests)[3]
• disc herniation http://www.physio-pedia.com/Disc_Herniation
• vascular claudication
• spinal cord primary or secondary tumor
• peripheral neuropathy
• osteoarthritis of hips or knees http://www.physio-pedia.com/Hip_Osteoarthritis
• osteoporotic compression fracture [2]
• myofascial pain
• rheumatoid arthritis http://www.physio-pedia.com/Rheumatoid_Arthritis
• lumbar degenerative disk disease
• lumbar facet arthropathy
• lumbar spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis and spondylodiskitis
• mechanical low back pain http://www.physio-pedia.com/Mechanical_low_back_pain

In older patients with back or leg pain, diagnostic possibilities differ from younger patients: non-mechanical causes of back pain, such as malignacy, infection or abdominal aortic aneurysm are common in elderly patients. [12]

Diagnostic Procedures

A variety of measurements can be used to assess treatment of patients with LSS. The underlying cause of LSS is identified by imaging techniques such as:

• radiography
• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
• computerized axial tomography
• myelogram
• bone scan

For patients with LSS, the severity of the structural pathology seen on diagnostic imaging studies has been shown to correlate poorly with the severity of symptoms and limitation. [14]

Outcome Measures

• The Modified Oswestry Disability Index (MOSW). [3,13,17]
• The Satisfaction Subscale of the Spinal Stenosis Scale (SSS); this is a test for psychological well-being.
• The Swiss Spinal Stenosis Questionnaire [5,13]
• The Oxford Spinal Stenosis Score [13]
• Zurich Claudication Questionnaire [4,6]
• Visual analogue scale [14,17]
• [[ http://www.physio-pedia.com/Roland%E2%80%90Morris_Disability_Questionnaire%7CRoland-Morris Disability Questionnaire]] [14]
  

Examination

The physical examination for patients with LSS is usually normal or demonstrates non-specific findings. Patients with stenosis often have lumbar, paraspinal, or gluteal tenderness, which is usually related to underlying degenerative changes, muscle spasms, and poor posture. Some assume a characteristic “simian stance”, with their hips and knees slightly flexed and the trunk flexed forward. This flexed posture allows patients to stand or walk for longer distances, because extension is usually more limited than flexion, and may reproduce lumbar or lower extremity symptoms of pain and/or paresthesias. S Hamstring tightness is often present and may produce a false-positive straight leg-raise test. [9,12]
The neurologic examination is usually normal or reveals only subtle abnormalities such as mild weakness, sensory changes, and reflex abnormalities. Ankle reflexes are often diminished, while abnormal knee reflexes are less common. The straight leg-raise test and other neural tension signs are usually negative unless there is accompanying disc herniation.
A careful motor examination should be performed. Leg weakness is generally mild and in the distribution of the L4, L5, or S1 nerve roots. Weakness of the muscles innervated by L5 is the most common finding. The examiner should test for weakness of great toe extensors and hip abductors as well. The Trendelenburg test is used to observe for hip abductor weakness. Difficulty with walking on the toes suggests S1 root involvement. Difficulty with heel walking suggests L4 of L5 nerve dysfunction.[12] Extension in the lumbar spine may be more limited than flexion. [22]

Medical Management

Surgery
If non-operative treatment has failed, surgical treatment may be considered. The key in deciding whether or not to have surgery is the degree of physical disability and disabling pain. In most cases of advanced claudication (spinal or vascular), a decompression surgery is required to alleviate the symptoms of spinal stenosis. [18]
Decompressive posterior laminectomy is the most common type of surgery to treat spinal stenosis. The goal of this surgery is to relieve pressure on the spinal cord or spinal nerve roots. If instability is present, autogenous intertransverse bone grafting is recommended. In some cases, spinal fusion (arthrodesis) may be done at the same time to help stabilize sections of the spine treated with decompressive laminectomy.[19,20] The most common surgical complication is dural tear. [8]

Steroid injections
Nerve roots may become irritated and swollen at the area where they are pinched. Injecting a corticosteroid into the space around the compression can help reduce the inflammation and relieve some of the pressure. It is suggested that epidural steroid injections help to control severe radicular symptoms in patients with spinal stenosis. However, repeated steroid injections can weaken nearby bones and connective tissue.[12]

Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Medications
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) are commonly prescribed for patients with LSS, and often help relieve pain associated with spinal stenosis. By reducing inflammation, these medications can relieve some of the pressure on compressed nerves. [21]

Physical Therapy Management

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