Multiple Body System Analysis Across the Lifespan: Difference between revisions
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(functional assessment to include sit-to-stand and stairs) | (functional assessment to include sit-to-stand and stairs) | ||
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* Maximal volitional muscular force, contractile velocity and muscular power are lower than adults. | * Maximal volitional muscular force, contractile velocity and muscular power are lower than in adults. | ||
* Children recover faster than adults from high-intensity, short-term exercise.<ref>Falk B, Dotan R. [https://journals.lww.com/acsm-essr/fulltext/2006/07000/child_adult_differences_in_the_recovery_from.4.aspx Child-adult differences in the recovery from high-intensity exercise.] Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2006 Jul;34(3):107-12.</ref> | * Children recover faster than adults from high-intensity, short-term exercise.<ref>Falk B, Dotan R. [https://journals.lww.com/acsm-essr/fulltext/2006/07000/child_adult_differences_in_the_recovery_from.4.aspx Child-adult differences in the recovery from high-intensity exercise.] Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2006 Jul;34(3):107-12.</ref> | ||
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* 1MSTST in healthy older men and women aged 75-79 years ranges from 22-37.<ref>Strassmann A, Steurer-Stey C, Lana KD, Zoller M, Turk AJ, Suter P, Puhan MA. Population-based reference values for the 1-min sit-to-stand test. Int J Public Health. 2013 Dec;58(6):949-53. </ref> | * 1MSTST in healthy older men and women aged 75-79 years ranges from 22-37.<ref>Strassmann A, Steurer-Stey C, Lana KD, Zoller M, Turk AJ, Suter P, Puhan MA. Population-based reference values for the 1-min sit-to-stand test. Int J Public Health. 2013 Dec;58(6):949-53. </ref> | ||
* Difficulty | * Difficulty climbing stairs has been reported as a marker of functional decline that can lead to loss of independence. | ||
* Older adults often report difficulty with stair climbing, and it is reported as one of the top five most difficult tasks to perform.<ref>Gagliano-Jucá T, Li Z, Pencina KM, Traustadóttir T, Travison TG, Woodhouse L, Basaria S, Tsitouras PD, Harman SM, Bhasin S, Storer TW. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7984416/pdf/gerona_75_6_1167.pdf The Stair Climb Power Test as an Efficacy Outcome in Randomized Trials of Function Promoting Therapies in Older Men.] J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2020 May 22;75(6):1167-1175. </ref> | * Older adults often report difficulty with stair climbing, and it is reported as one of the top five most difficult tasks to perform.<ref>Gagliano-Jucá T, Li Z, Pencina KM, Traustadóttir T, Travison TG, Woodhouse L, Basaria S, Tsitouras PD, Harman SM, Bhasin S, Storer TW. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7984416/pdf/gerona_75_6_1167.pdf The Stair Climb Power Test as an Efficacy Outcome in Randomized Trials of Function Promoting Therapies in Older Men.] J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2020 May 22;75(6):1167-1175. </ref> | ||
* Assessing a person's ability to climb stairs can provide information on hip and knee strength and stability.<ref name=":4">Kapoor E. Multiple Body System Analysis Across the Lifespan Course. Plus, 2024. </ref> | * Assessing a person's ability to climb stairs can provide information on hip and knee strength and stability.<ref name=":4">Kapoor E. Multiple Body System Analysis Across the Lifespan Course. Plus, 2024. </ref> | ||
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* Assessing over-lengthened vs tight muscle. | * Assessing over-lengthened vs tight muscle. | ||
* Lumbar spine mobility is greater in children than in adults. | * Lumbar spine mobility is greater in children than in adults. | ||
* Caution must be applied during visual estimation of spine position as intra- and inter-rater reliability of a visual assessment is poor .<ref name=":3">Kondratek M, Krauss J, Stiller C, Olson R. [https://journals.lww.com/pedpt/fulltext/2007/01930/normative_values_for_active_lumbar_range_of_motion.9.aspx Normative values for active lumbar range of motion in children.] Pediatr Phys Ther. 2007 Fall;19(3):236-44.</ref> | * Caution must be applied during visual estimation of spine position as intra- and inter-rater reliability of a visual assessment is poor.<ref name=":3">Kondratek M, Krauss J, Stiller C, Olson R. [https://journals.lww.com/pedpt/fulltext/2007/01930/normative_values_for_active_lumbar_range_of_motion.9.aspx Normative values for active lumbar range of motion in children.] Pediatr Phys Ther. 2007 Fall;19(3):236-44.</ref> | ||
* Muscle weakness, abnormal positioning, and abnormal movement patterns may lead to abnormal spinal mobility.<ref name=":3" /> | * Muscle weakness, abnormal positioning, and abnormal movement patterns may lead to abnormal spinal mobility.<ref name=":3" /> | ||
|'''Chest wall mobility:''' | |'''Chest wall mobility:''' | ||
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* Patients with haemophilia or other bleeding disorders and patients who are on long-term anticoagulation present with a higher incidence of decreased BMD.<ref name=":4" /> | * Patients with haemophilia or other bleeding disorders and patients who are on long-term anticoagulation present with a higher incidence of decreased BMD.<ref name=":4" /> | ||
| | | | ||
* BMD decreases with age.<ref>Padilla Colón CJ, Molina-Vicenty IL, Frontera-Rodríguez M, García-Ferré A, Rivera BP, Cintrón-Vélez G, Frontera-Rodríguez S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6261527/pdf/nihms947379.pdf Muscle and Bone Mass Loss in the Elderly Population: Advances in diagnosis and treatment.] J Biomed (Syd). 2018;3:40-49.</ref> | * BMD decreases with age.<ref>Padilla Colón CJ, Molina-Vicenty IL, Frontera-Rodríguez M, García-Ferré A, Rivera BP, Cintrón-Vélez G, Frontera-Rodríguez S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6261527/pdf/nihms947379.pdf Muscle and Bone Mass Loss in the Elderly Population: Advances in diagnosis and treatment.] J Biomed (Syd). 2018;3:40-49.</ref><ref name=":6">Liu CK, Leng X, Hsu FC, et al. The impact of sarcopenia on a physical activity intervention: the Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders Pilot Study (LIFE-P) J Nutr Health Aging. 2014;18(1):59–64.</ref> | ||
* Osteopenia often progresses to osteoporosis. | * Osteopenia often progresses to osteoporosis. | ||
* Strength training can stimulate hypertrophy and increase muscle strength to counteract the loss of muscle mass.<ref>Johnston AP, De Lisio M, Parise G. Resistance training, sarcopenia, and the mitochondrial theory of ageing. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008 Feb;33(1):191-9. </ref> | * Strength training can stimulate hypertrophy and increase muscle strength to counteract the loss of muscle mass.<ref>Johnston AP, De Lisio M, Parise G. Resistance training, sarcopenia, and the mitochondrial theory of ageing. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008 Feb;33(1):191-9. </ref> | ||
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== Neurological System == | == Neurological System == | ||
<blockquote>"Neurons that fire together, wire together."<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>"Each time we practise that certain type of movement or certain type of action, we are laying down those pathways in our brain."<ref name=":4" /> -- Eena Kapoor </blockquote> | <blockquote>"Neurons that fire together, wire together."<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>"Each time we practise that certain type of movement or certain type of action, we are laying down those pathways in our brain."<ref name=":4" /> -- Eena Kapoor </blockquote>A neurological assessment incluedes many elements. For a detailed discussion of how to screen the neurological system, please see: [[Neurological Screen]]. This section consider key functional tests that can be included in a neurological system assessment. | ||
It is important to consider the following components in a neurological systems assessment: | |||
* proprioception | * proprioception | ||
** ability to determine a body segment's | ** ability to determine a body segment's position and movement in space<ref>Han J, Waddington G, Adams R, Anson J, Liu Y. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6191985/pdf/main.pdf Assessing proprioception: A critical review of methods]. J Sport Health Sci. 2016 Mar;5(1):80-90. </ref> | ||
* vestibular system | * vestibular system | ||
** | ** ability to coordinate movement with balance (static and dynamic) | ||
** contributes to spatial orientation, postural control, and gaze stabilisation | |||
* interoception | * interoception | ||
** | ** ability to detect / perceive internal regulation, including heart rate, respiration, hunger, and digestion<ref>Camarata S, Miller LJ, Wallace MT. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7726187/pdf/fnint-14-556660.pdf Evaluating Sensory Integration/Sensory Processing Treatment: Issues and Analysis.] Front Integr Neurosci. 2020 Nov 26;14:556660.</ref> | ||
Table 2 provides examples of functional tests that can be part of the neurological system assessment for children/adolescents, adults and older adults. It also identifies conditions and changes that occur in the neurological system across the lifespan. | Table 2 provides examples of functional tests that can be part of the neurological system assessment for children/adolescents, adults and older adults. It also identifies conditions and changes that occur in the neurological system across the lifespan. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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* Ageing is associated with a decline in proprioceptive function.<ref name=":9">Ferlinc A, Fabiani E, Velnar T, Gradisnik L. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6853739/pdf/MSM-31-219.pdf The Importance and Role of Proprioception in the Elderly: a Short Review.] Mater Sociomed. 2019 Sep;31(3):219-221.</ref> | * Ageing is associated with a decline in proprioceptive function.<ref name=":9">Ferlinc A, Fabiani E, Velnar T, Gradisnik L. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6853739/pdf/MSM-31-219.pdf The Importance and Role of Proprioception in the Elderly: a Short Review.] Mater Sociomed. 2019 Sep;31(3):219-221.</ref> | ||
* Proprioception is required for | * Proprioception is required for optimal function during movement and to maintain balance.<ref name=":9" /> | ||
* A decline in proprioception due to ageing affects mobility and increases an individual's risk of falls.<ref name=":9" /> | * A decline in proprioception due to ageing affects mobility and increases an individual's risk of falls.<ref name=":9" /> | ||
* Balance deficits can be linked to declines in proprioceptive function during the ageing process.<ref name=":9" /> | * Balance deficits can be linked to declines in proprioceptive function during the ageing process.<ref name=":9" /> | ||
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* '''"Static balance''' takes place when the center of gravity is maintained vertically above the base, without changing the base lengthwise."<ref name=":19">Yanovich E, Bar-Shalom S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9319221/pdf/children-09-00939.pdf Static and Dynamic Balance Indices among Kindergarten Children: A Short-Term Intervention Program during COVID-19 Lockdowns.] Children (Basel). 2022 Jun 22;9(7):939.</ref> | * '''"Static balance''' takes place when the center of gravity is maintained vertically above the base, without changing the base lengthwise."<ref name=":19">Yanovich E, Bar-Shalom S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9319221/pdf/children-09-00939.pdf Static and Dynamic Balance Indices among Kindergarten Children: A Short-Term Intervention Program during COVID-19 Lockdowns.] Children (Basel). 2022 Jun 22;9(7):939.</ref> | ||
* Static balance develops before the third year of age. | * Static balance develops before the third year of age. | ||
* Static balance tests include | * Static balance tests include the ''flamingo test, one-leg stance on a low beam and tandem stance on a force plate.'' | ||
* '''Dynamic balance''' is defined as the "ability to maintain the center of gravity above the base during movement, with the body exiting the center of gravity."<ref name=":19" /> | * '''Dynamic balance''' is defined as the "ability to maintain the center of gravity above the base during movement, with the body exiting the center of gravity."<ref name=":19" /> | ||
* Dynamic balance develops between the third and seventh years. | * Dynamic balance develops between the third and seventh years. | ||
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* Vestibular signal impairment is associated with balance disorders and spatial disorientation in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.<ref>Coto J, Alvarez CL, Cejas I, Colbert BM, Levin BE, Huppert J, Rundek T, Balaban C, Blanton SH, Lee DJ, Loewenstein D, Hoffer M, Liu XZ. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1672293021000271 Peripheral vestibular system: Age-related vestibular loss and associated deficits.] J Otol. 2021 Oct;16(4):258-265. </ref> | * Vestibular signal impairment is associated with balance disorders and spatial disorientation in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.<ref>Coto J, Alvarez CL, Cejas I, Colbert BM, Levin BE, Huppert J, Rundek T, Balaban C, Blanton SH, Lee DJ, Loewenstein D, Hoffer M, Liu XZ. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1672293021000271 Peripheral vestibular system: Age-related vestibular loss and associated deficits.] J Otol. 2021 Oct;16(4):258-265. </ref> | ||
* Balance testing may include: | * Balance testing may include: | ||
** Romberg test | ** [[Romberg Test|Romberg test]]: the patient stands on a firm surface with eyes open and closed | ||
** | ** Progressions to assess balance include standing on a foam-padded surface with eyes closed | ||
| | | | ||
* 20-50% of older adults are diagnosed with a balance impairment.<ref name=":10">Nnodim JO, Yung RL. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4773046/pdf/nihms754637.pdf Balance and its Clinical Assessment in Older Adults - A Review.] J Geriatr Med Gerontol. 2015;1(1):003.</ref> | * 20-50% of older adults are diagnosed with a balance impairment.<ref name=":10">Nnodim JO, Yung RL. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4773046/pdf/nihms754637.pdf Balance and its Clinical Assessment in Older Adults - A Review.] J Geriatr Med Gerontol. 2015;1(1):003.</ref> | ||
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** Timed up-and-go test | ** Timed up-and-go test | ||
** Functional reach test (FRT) | ** Functional reach test (FRT) | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{#ev:youtube|v=rms5I02Rzg0&t=39s|300}}<ref>Neuroscience News. Exploring Interoception: The Neuroscience of Internal Body Signals - Neuroscience News. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rms5I02Rzg0&t=39s [last accessed 23/3/2024]</ref> | {{#ev:youtube|v=rms5I02Rzg0&t=39s|300}}<ref>Neuroscience News. Exploring Interoception: The Neuroscience of Internal Body Signals - Neuroscience News. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rms5I02Rzg0&t=39s [last accessed 23/3/2024]</ref> | ||
== Integumentary System == | == Integumentary System == |
Revision as of 02:06, 8 April 2024
Original Editor - Ewa Jaraczewska based on the course by Eena Kapoor
Top Contributors - Ewa Jaraczewska, Jess Bell and Kim Jackson
Introduction[edit | edit source]
Throughout the lifespan, the body experiences many changes in its cells, tissues, and organs, which can impact the functioning of all body systems. Everyone ages differently, and healthcare providers must be able to recognise these differences. This article explores multi-system characteristics, impairments, and interventions for children, adolescents, adults, and older adults.
Musculoskeletal System[edit | edit source]
A full musculoskeletal examination will be performed to assess the musculoskeletal system. Functional tests are an important part of this assessment.
The functional capacity of the musculoskeletal system should be assessed within the context of a person's school, play, work, daily activities, and sports. Because functional tests vary in terms of their reliability and validity, using a combination of a questionnaire and a functional test appears to be the most effective means to evaluate the functional capacity of the musculoskeletal system.[1] The following questionnaires are recommended:[1]
- Oswestry Disability Index
- Pain Disability Index
- Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire
- Upper Extremity Functional Scale
Table 1 provides examples of functional tests that can be used in the musculoskeletal system assessment for children/adolescents, adults and older adults. It also identifies conditions and changes that can occur in the system across the lifespan.
Children/Adolescents | Adults | Older Adults | |
---|---|---|---|
Muscle strength
(functional assessment to include sit-to-stand and stairs) |
|
1MSTST: norm values range from 8.1 in individuals with stroke to 24 in individuals with advanced lung disease[6] or 50 in healthy adult males.[7] |
|
Flexibility / range of motion
(spinal and chest wall mobility) |
Chest wall mobility:
Age 3 years through to adulthood: Chest wall mobility measurements for tidal volume excursion:[12]
Paediatric:
Chest wall measurement for vital capacity:[12]
Spinal mobility:
|
Chest wall mobility:
Spinal mobility: Measured in standing using the inclinometer technique:[14]
|
Chest wall mobility:
Spinal mobility: Measurement as for adults.
|
Pain |
|
|
|
Bone mineral density |
|
||
Core stability |
|
Same as in children/adolescents. | Same as in children/adolescents. |
Neurological System[edit | edit source]
"Neurons that fire together, wire together."[10]
"Each time we practise that certain type of movement or certain type of action, we are laying down those pathways in our brain."[10] -- Eena Kapoor
A neurological assessment incluedes many elements. For a detailed discussion of how to screen the neurological system, please see: Neurological Screen. This section consider key functional tests that can be included in a neurological system assessment.
It is important to consider the following components in a neurological systems assessment:
- proprioception
- ability to determine a body segment's position and movement in space[23]
- vestibular system
- ability to coordinate movement with balance (static and dynamic)
- contributes to spatial orientation, postural control, and gaze stabilisation
- interoception
- ability to detect / perceive internal regulation, including heart rate, respiration, hunger, and digestion[24]
Table 2 provides examples of functional tests that can be part of the neurological system assessment for children/adolescents, adults and older adults. It also identifies conditions and changes that occur in the neurological system across the lifespan.
Children/Adolescents | Adults | Older Adults | |
---|---|---|---|
Proprioception |
|
There are three main testing techniques for assessing proprioception in adults: |
|
Vestibular system |
|
|
|
Interoception[edit | edit source]
Interoception is the ability to perceive internal bodily states. Our perception of internal body signals influences our emotions, decision-making, and sense of self.
This optional video explores the concept of interception:
Integumentary System[edit | edit source]
Adequate mobility of the skin and other connective tissues is needed for free movement of the underlying structures to provide postural support and assure proper ventilation.[12] Multiple impairments can be associated with fascial restrictions.
The skin is one of the largest organs of the body. It has many functions, including the following:[32]
- structural barrier
- thermoregulation
- contributes to sensation for neuromuscular control
- provides fascial mobility to allow joint range of motion
Skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, and allergic or irritant contact dermatitis affect skin transepidermal water loss (TEWL, the amount of water loss through the epidermis through evaporation), hydration, and acidity.[33]
Table 3 provides examples of conditions and changes that can occur in the integumentary system across the lifespan.
Children/Adolesents | Adults | Older Adults | |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
If you would like to read more about the integumentary system, please see this Physiopedia article.
Gastrointestinal System[edit | edit source]
- The gastrointestinal (GI) system occupies the majority of the space in the abdominal compartment.
- The following structures surround the abdominal compartment:
- diaphragm superiorly
- abdominal wall anteriorly
- spine posteriorly
- costal arch on both sides
- pelvis inferiorly
- The abdominal compartment contains multiple solid and hollow organs, adipose tissue, and major blood vessels. It is located intra- and/ or retro-peritoneally
- The healthy functioning of the GI system depends on the body's ability to generate intra-abdominal pressure
Table 4 provides examples of conditions and changes in the gastrointestinal system that can occur across the lifespan.
Children/Adolesents | Adults | Older Adults | |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
Cardiopulmonary System[edit | edit source]
The following functions of the cardiopulmonary system should be considered when assessing the system across the lifespan:
- breathing mechanics and patterns
- sleep quality
- oxygen saturation and blood pressure
Children/Adolescents | Adults | Older Adults | |
---|---|---|---|
Breathing mechanics and patterns |
|
|
|
Sleep Quality |
|
||
Oxygen saturation and blood pressure |
|
Mental Health System[edit | edit source]
“Without mental health there can be no true physical health” -- Dr Brock Chisholm, the first Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO).
The World Health Organization defines mental health as comprehensive physical, psychological and social well-being.[58] Economic and social circumstances significantly influence complete mental health, resilience and social support across the lifespan.[59] Older adults often score lower in mental health-related quality of life (MHRQoL) scores.[60] Kang et al.[60] also found that older adults report the highest stress and depression. Stress, depression, and subjective health status influence mental health-related quality of life in adolescents and adults.[60]
Role of physiotherapists in mental health:[61]
- promotion of health, including mental health
- education about mental health
- referral to mental health specialists when necessary
- providing a person-centred approach for children, adolescents, adults, and older adults to enhance physical and emotional well-being through improving posture, respiration and concentration
- the following low-impact activities may be useful for patients:
- Yoga (mind-body therapy)
- Pilates method (balancing of the body and mind)
- Feldenkrais method (use of the self through awareness)
- Tai-Chi
- Mindfulness-based therapies
- Breathing therapies
- the following low-impact activities may be useful for patients:
Resources[edit | edit source]
- Schenkman M, Butler RB. A model for multisystem evaluation treatment of individuals with Parkinson's disease. Phys Ther. 1989 Nov;69(11):932-43. doi: 10.1093/ptj/69.11.932. PMID: 2813521.
- Massery M, Magee CL. Asthma: multisystem implications. In: Campbell S, Palisano R, Vander Linden D, editors. Physical Therapy for Children. 3 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Science, 2006. p851-79.
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Wind H, Gouttebarge V, Kuijer PP, Frings-Dresen MH. Assessment of the functional capacity of the musculoskeletal system in the context of work, daily living, and sport: a systematic review. J Occup Rehabil. 2005 Jun;15(2):253-72.
- ↑ Falk B, Dotan R. Child-adult differences in the recovery from high-intensity exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2006 Jul;34(3):107-12.
- ↑ Haile SR, Fühner T, Granacher U, Stocker J, Radtke T, Kriemler S. Reference values and validation of the 1-minute sit-to-stand test in healthy 5-16-year-old youth: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2021 May 7;11(5):e049143.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mall MP, Wander J, Lentz A, Jakob A, Oberhoffer FS, Mandilaras G, et al. Step by step: evaluation of cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy children, young adults, and patients with congenital heart disease using a simple standardized stair climbing test. Children (Basel). 2024 Feb 12;11(2):236.
- ↑ Schorling DC, Rawer R, Kuhlmann I, Müller C, Pechmann A, Kirschner J. Mechanographic analysis of the timed 4 stair climb test - methodology and reference data of healthy children and adolescents. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2023 Mar 1;23(1):4-25.
- ↑ Watson K, Winship P, Cavalheri V, Vicary C, Stray S, Bear N, Hill K. In adults with advanced lung disease, the 1-minute sit-to-stand test underestimates exertional desaturation compared with the 6-minute walk test: an observational study. J Physiother. 2023 Apr;69(2):108-113.
- ↑ Bohannon RW, Crouch R. 1-Minute Sit-to-Stand Test: Systematic review of procedures, performance and clinimetric properties. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev. 2019 Jan;39(1):2-8.
- ↑ Strassmann A, Steurer-Stey C, Lana KD, Zoller M, Turk AJ, Suter P, Puhan MA. Population-based reference values for the 1-min sit-to-stand test. Int J Public Health. 2013 Dec;58(6):949-53.
- ↑ Gagliano-Jucá T, Li Z, Pencina KM, Traustadóttir T, Travison TG, Woodhouse L, Basaria S, Tsitouras PD, Harman SM, Bhasin S, Storer TW. The Stair Climb Power Test as an Efficacy Outcome in Randomized Trials of Function Promoting Therapies in Older Men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2020 May 22;75(6):1167-1175.
- ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 Kapoor E. Multiple Body System Analysis Across the Lifespan Course. Plus, 2024.
- ↑ Brodowski H, Andres N, Gumny M, Eicher C, Steinhagen-Thiessen E, Tannen A, Kiselev J.Reliability of stair-climbing speed in two cohorts of older adults.International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation 2021; 28(11):1-15.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Massery, M. "If You Can't Breathe, You Can't Function" continuing education class 20 hrs. 2008, Chicago, IL. USA www.MasseryPT.com
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Kondratek M, Krauss J, Stiller C, Olson R. Normative values for active lumbar range of motion in children. Pediatr Phys Ther. 2007 Fall;19(3):236-44.
- ↑ Waddell G, Somerville D, Henderson I, Newton M. Objective clinical evaluation of physical impairment in chronic low back pain. Spine 1992;17:617–28.
- ↑ Saidu IA, Maduagwu SM, Abbas AD, Adetunji OO, Jajere AM. Lumbar spinal mobility changes among adults with advancing age. J Midlife Health. 2011 Jul;2(2):65-71.
- ↑ Sansone L, Gentile C, Grasso EA, Di Ludovico A, La Bella S, Chiarelli F, Breda L. Pain Evaluation and Treatment in Children: A Practical Approach. Children (Basel). 2023 Jul 13;10(7):1212.
- ↑ Adeboye A, Hart R, Senapathi SH, Ali N, Holman L, Thomas HW. Assessment of Functional Pain Score by Comparing to Traditional Pain Scores. Cureus. 2021 Aug 3;13(8):e16847.
- ↑ BioPsychoSocial Assessment Tools for the Elderly - Assessment Summary Sheet. Available from https://instruct.uwo.ca/kinesiology/9641/Assessments/Biological/FPS.html [last access 22.03.2024]
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 McVey MK, Geraghty AA, O'Brien EC, McKenna MJ, Kilbane MT, Crowley RK, Twomey PJ, McAuliffe FM. The impact of diet, body composition, and physical activity on child bone mineral density at five years of age-findings from the ROLO Kids Study. Eur J Pediatr. 2020 Jan;179(1):121-131.
- ↑ Padilla Colón CJ, Molina-Vicenty IL, Frontera-Rodríguez M, García-Ferré A, Rivera BP, Cintrón-Vélez G, Frontera-Rodríguez S. Muscle and Bone Mass Loss in the Elderly Population: Advances in diagnosis and treatment. J Biomed (Syd). 2018;3:40-49.
- ↑ Liu CK, Leng X, Hsu FC, et al. The impact of sarcopenia on a physical activity intervention: the Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders Pilot Study (LIFE-P) J Nutr Health Aging. 2014;18(1):59–64.
- ↑ Johnston AP, De Lisio M, Parise G. Resistance training, sarcopenia, and the mitochondrial theory of ageing. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008 Feb;33(1):191-9.
- ↑ Han J, Waddington G, Adams R, Anson J, Liu Y. Assessing proprioception: A critical review of methods. J Sport Health Sci. 2016 Mar;5(1):80-90.
- ↑ Camarata S, Miller LJ, Wallace MT. Evaluating Sensory Integration/Sensory Processing Treatment: Issues and Analysis. Front Integr Neurosci. 2020 Nov 26;14:556660.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Chu VWT. Assessing Proprioception in Children: A Review. J Mot Behav. 2017 Jul-Aug;49(4):458-466.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Yang N, Waddington G, Adams R, Han J. Joint position reproduction and joint position discrimination at the ankle are not related. Somatosens Mot Res. 2020 Jun;37(2):97-105.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Ferlinc A, Fabiani E, Velnar T, Gradisnik L. The Importance and Role of Proprioception in the Elderly: a Short Review. Mater Sociomed. 2019 Sep;31(3):219-221.
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