Visual Motor Integration

Original Editor - Romy Hageman
Top Contributors - Romy Hageman and Kim Jackson

Introduction[edit | edit source]

The concept of visual-motor integration (VMI) is complex and influenced by various factors, including visual receptive functions, visual cognitive functions, fine motor ability, and the coordination of visual, cognitive and motor processes[1].

The VMI encompasses sensory, perceptual and motor components, signifying the coordination of visual perception with motor skills[2]. The sensory component involves processing visual stimuli in a specific environment, while the perceptual component interprets and understands the observed information[3]. Collectively, these components empower an individual to comprehend visual stimuli, and both elements are essential for functional vision. The visual perception is also the ability to copy geometrical shapes, letters, and images within a designated space[4]. This proficiency is deemed crucial for effective motor coordination. The motor component entails physical movements in response to the visual stimuli[5]. Efficient coordination between the visual system and the motor system becomes effective when the foundational skills of both visual and motor abilities are firmly established[6].

Background[edit | edit source]

Visual-Motor Integration Skills

The integration of visual and motor skills holds significance in the development of children. Children are not born with fully developed visual-motor integration skills; instead, these skills evolve from reflexes and gradually gain control and coordination as they age[7].

The developmental milestones for VMI commence at three months of age, marked by an infant's ability to visually track an object while lying on their back (supine position)[8]. The VMI is closely linked to various functional abilities and the capacity to engage in daily tasks[9]. VMI skills enable individuals to plan, monitor, and perform motor tasks, such as tying shoelaces, threading a needle, and catching or hitting a ball[10]. For instance, visual-motor integration plays a crucial role in the acquisition of handwriting skills[11][12].

Approximately 10% to 30% of school-aged children are estimated to encounter difficulties with handwriting[13].Various research has noted that visual-motor integration is a significant predictor of handwriting performance[1][11][14][15][16][17][18].This is especially in the early grades, as younger students often depend more on visual feedback and motor information to guide their movements when forming and replicating letters[19][20][21].

The relationship between the VMI and handwriting seem to diminish after the age of 5 years[22]. Inadequate visual-motor integration may lead to handwriting that is sluggish and lacks coordination in the process, resulting in large and illegible final output[23]. Beyond its impact on the development of handwriting, difficulties in visual-motor integration are likely to have repercussions on academic performance in areas such as reading, mathematics and overall academic performance[5][9][21][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34].

There are multiple theories why the VMI may be a good indicator of children's academic development. One aspect to consider is that the skills assessed by measures of VMI, including understanding instructions, maintaining focused attention on a task, and handling and manipulation writing tools, share similarities with the skills crucial for success in academic settings[35]. More specifically, the progression of numerous crucial skills that contribute to academic development is directly impacted by visual-motor integration abilities[36]. This includes early writing proficiency and the ability to map x and y pairs onto the coordinate plane.

There is a suggestion that proficient VMI skills play a role in enhancing the acquisition of handwriting skills. This, in turn, diminishes the necessity to concentrate attention on the physical act of writing. As a result, the reduced attentional demands create free working memory resources that can be directed towards the written content[34][37]. VMI also plays an indirect role in extracurricular activities, sports, recreational performance, social and emotional skills[38][39]. Impairments in VMI skills are diverse, leading to negative consequences on both participation and self-concept[40][41].

Diagnosis[edit | edit source]

There are different diagnosis that may influence the visual-motor integration:

  • Children born preterm: several reports have shown that children born preterm may exhibit poor VMI and motor function[42][43][44][45][46][47][48], especially in preterm infants with retinopathy of prematurity[49].
  • Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP): several studies were at a consensus that CP negatively impacts VMI skills[50][51][52][53]. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations[54].
  • Children with Brachial Plexus Injury: several studies were at consensus that brachial plexus injury may have a negative impact on VMI skills[53][55][56]. The extent of impairment in Brachial Plexus Injury is associated with adverse effects on physical functioning, particularly affecting tasks related to VMI[57]. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations[54].
  • Children and adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): studies are at consensus that ASD negatively impacts VMI skills[53][58][59][60][61][62][63]. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations[54].
  • Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): children with ADHD exhibited significantly lower visual-motor integration[64] [65].
  • Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): children with DCD score lower compared to typically developing children[66][67] [68][69].
  • Astigmatic students: unaddressed astigmatism impacts the performance of visual motor and perceptual tasks. Individuals previously treated with corrective spectacles for astigmatism do no exhibit developmental deficits in visual motor or perceptual tasks when assessed with proper correction[70].
  • Children with Sickle Cell Disease: children with Sickle Cell Disease have impaired VMI skills[71].
  • Children with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): children with HIV are at risk for neurodevelopmental delay related to visual motor integration and visual perception[72] .
  • Children with congenital heart disease: visual-motor integration scores are lower for children with congenital heart disease than the norms[73].
  • Individuals with 3q29 deletion syndrome (3q29del): this deletion is associated with substantial deficits in visual-motor integration[74] .
  • Children with Prader Willi Syndrome: visual-motor integration is very poor in children with Prader Willi Syndrome[75].
  • Children with Learning Disabilities: children facing learning disabilities frequently exhibit deficiencies in visual-motor integration, including issues with spatial awareness, poor handwriting, challenges in coloring withing the lines and writing within the lines, drawing, using scissors, and copying designs[76] .

Gender[edit | edit source]

In general, gender might influence visual-motor integration skills in children; however, conclusive findings cannot be drawn at this time[77][38][78][79][80]. Notably, one study indicated that females exhibited superior VMI abilities compared to males[18], while another study suggested that males were at a higher risk for VMI deficits[81].

Age[edit | edit source]

All studies unanimously agreed that age had an impact on visual-motor integration scores[82][83][84][85][86][87]. There is a normal improvement associated with maturity[10][88][89][90][91].

Cross-cultural variations[edit | edit source]

Chinese children (aged 3-12) demonstrate significantly higher standard scores on VMI tests compared to children in the United States[87]. It is possible that early and intensive handwriting training in Chinese children might play a role in their exceptional performance in visual-motor integration. Their enhanced VMI skills could also be associated with the detailed geometric shapes and complex graphical nature of the Chinese characters[87].

Diagnostic instruments[edit | edit source]

The following instruments can be used to determine the visual-motor integration:

Therapy interventions[edit | edit source]

Early implementation of interventions targeting a child's visual-motor integration skills is crucial[97][98]. Addressing deficits in VMI skills before formal schooling begins is essential, as these deficits can impact a child's academic journey[27]. By practicing, enhancing, or remediating these skills early on, children can cope better with school-related challenges, preventing potential delays compared to their peers[99][100].

Interventions designed to enhance the VMI skills of children should incorporate activities and exercises that engage their visual senses[25]. Tasks involving visual stimuli, such as objects, encouraged children to actively engage with what they observed[101]. This facilitates the development of Gross Motor Skills through activities involving object manipulation, as well as enhancing the VMI skills. This is because children need to interpret their visual environment to execute appropriate motor responses while interacting with the objects[101].

  • Early interventions can improve VMI in general school populations[102] and in children born preterm[103].
  • Several studies suggest that occupational therapy intervention improves VMI skills in children with disabilities[104][105][106].
  • The utilization of visual perception exercises, whether motor-independent or motor-dependent, can serve as an effective intervention to enhance the visual-motor integration of children with ADHD[107] .
  • Engaging in visual perceptual interventions positively impacted the VMI skills and performance in daily activities for children with Cerebral Palsy[50][51][52] .
  • A graphomotor intervention program can significantly change children's visual-motor integration scores[108] .
  • Augmented reality (AR) can be useful for effectively improving visual-motor integration in children with developmental delays[109].
  • Specific visual-motor integration activities such as dot-to dot activities, near point copying and fair point copying, are effective in improving board copying for children with learning disabilities[76].
  • Intervention program based on the Beery VMI educational tool: My shape Book, can significantly improve the performance in visual-motor integration[98].

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Dankert HL, Davies PL, Gavin WJ. Occupational therapy effects on visual motor skills in preschool children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2003; 57(5): 542-549
  2. ↑ Afrika E, Van Deventer K. A motor skills programme to enhance visual and motor integration of selected pre-school learners. Early childhood Development and Care. 2016; 187(12): 1960-1970
  3. ↑ Cheatum BA, Hammond AA. Physical activities for improving children's learning and behaviour: A guide to sensory motor development, Human Kinetics. Champaign, IL. 2000
  4. ↑ Lane KA. Developing ocular motor and visual perceptual skills: An activity workbook. Slack Incorporated, Thorofare, NJ. 2005
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Battaglia-Mayer A, Caminiti R. Parieto-Frontal networks for eye-hand coordination and movements. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2018; 151: 499-524
  6. ↑ Memis A, Ayvaz SD. The analysis of reading skills and visual perception levels of first grade Turkish students. Journal of Education and Training Studies. 2016; 4(8)
  7. ↑ Case-Smith J, O'Brien JC. Occupational therapy for children, 6edn., Elsevier-Mosby, St. Louis, MO, 2010.
  8. ↑ Scharf RJ, Scharf GJ, Stroustrup A. Developmental milestones. Pediatrics in Review. 2016; 37(1): 25-38
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Marr D, Cermak S. Predicting handwriting performance of early elementary students with the developmental test of visual-motor integration. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 95(1): 661-669
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Abou-El-Saad T. Afsah O, Baz H, Shaaban W. The relationship between visual-motor integration and handwriting skills in Arabic-speaking Egyptian children at the age of 4-6 years. Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology. 2017; 33(4): 663-669
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Volman MJM, van Schendel B, Jongmans MJ. Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2006; 60(4): 451-460
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  13. ↑ Karlsdottir R, Stefansson T. Problems in developing functional handwriting. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 94(2): 623-662
  14. ↑ Feder KP, Majnemer A. Handwriting development, competency, and intervention. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2007; 49(4): 312-317
  15. ↑ Taverna L, Tremolada M, Sabattini F. Drawing and Writing. Learning of Graphical Representational Systems in Early Childhood. In Proceedings of the 2nd International and Interdisciplinary Conference on Image and Imagination; Cicalo. Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; 216-229
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  23. ↑ Zajic M, Wilson S. Writing research involving children with autism spectrum disorder without a co-occurring intellectual disability: A systematic Review using a language domains and mediational systems framework. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2020; 70: 120-147
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  92. ↑ Beery KE, Buktenica NA, Beery NA. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: Administration, scoring and teaching manual (6th ed.). Minneapolis, MN Pearson. 2010
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  94. ↑ Emam MM, Al-Attiyah AA, Alhuwilah A, Awed HS, Omara E. Cross-cultural Validation of the Full Range Test of Visual Motor Integration Used with Children in Four Arab Countries. Optometry and Vision Science. 2021; 98(6): 644-653
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  96. ↑ Brown T, Murdolo Y. The Developmental Test of Visual Perception - Third Edition (DTVP-3): A Review, Critique, and Practice Implications. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools & Early Intervention. 2015; 8(4): 336-354
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  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 Papadopoulos A, Vasileiad I. Detection of difficulties and intervention programme for the improvement of visual-motor integration in preschoolers with special educational needs. Research Square. 2024
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