Jump to content

Running and Breathing Mechanics

Original Editor - Kapil Narale

Top Contributors - Malisha van der Berg, Kapil Narale, Vidya Acharya and Alexandra Stead  

Introduction

Breathing mechanics during running are highly relevant to physiotherapists, sports rehabilitation practitioners, and running coaches. The way a runner breathes affects ventilatory efficiency, oxygen (O₂) transport, exercise tolerance, and perceived exertion. Despite its clinical importance, breathing pattern is often under-assessed in running evaluation and rehabilitation practice.[1][2]

Up to 40% of runners experience exercise-induced dyspnoea (EID), or breathlessness during exercise, which can reduce both performance and participation.[1][3] Growing evidence from yoga, meditation, and breath-work suggests that targeted breathing techniques may improve respiratory function, lower perceived effort, and support recovery.[1][2][4]

This page provides an evidence-based overview of:

  • The respiratory response to running
  • The physiological effects of nasal and oral breathing during exercise
  • Locomotor-respiratory coupling
  • The role of breathing during resistance training
  • Practical breathing techniques that physiotherapists can apply with runners

Respiration Response to Exercise

The respiratory system responds dynamically to the increased metabolic demands of running, precisely regulating breathing to maintain stable blood gas levels. Understanding the mechanical and chemical drivers of this response reveals how the body sustains performance across a wide range of exercise intensities.[5]

Ventilatory mechanics

During running, the body consumes more oxygen (O2) and produces more carbon dioxide (CO2), placing progressive demands on the respiratory system.[5] The primary role of the respiratory system during exercise is to maintain arterial blood gas homeostasis, keeping O2 and CO2 levels within a stable, healthy range.[5][6] This is achieved by regulating pulmonary ventilation (VE), the total volume of air breathed per minute, expressed by the equation:

VE = Respiratory Rate (RR) x Tidal Volume (VT)

Where RR is the number of breaths per minute and VT is the volume of air per breath.[5] During maximal exercise, VE may rise more than tenfold, from approximately 6 litres per minute at rest to up to 150 litres per minute at peak intensity.[7]

Chemoreceptor regulation

Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem and peripheral chemoreceptors in the arterial walls continuously monitor arterial O2 and CO2 partial pressures (PaO2 and PaCO2).[5] They signal the respiratory control centres in the brain, which adjust RR, VT, and respiratory muscle recruitment accordingly.[8][9]

[10]

The primary driver of ventilation is CO2. Acid-sensing channels in the cerebrospinal fluid respond to hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations to maintain arterial PCO2 at approximately 40 mmHg during steady-state exercise.[7] At high exercise intensities, RR is additionally regulated by fast neural inputs, including type III and IV muscle afferent feedback.[7]

For more detail on respiratory control, see The Science of Breathing Well

Ventilatory Response by Exercise Intensity

The body continuously selects the breathing pattern that minimises the energy cost of ventilation for any given exercise intensity, a concept known as “the principle of minimal effort”.[11][12] The ventilatory response adapts differently across intensity zones:

  1. Mild intensity: VE increases through simultaneous rises in both RR and VT as the body recruits both mechanisms to meet modest increases in metabolic demand.[5]
  2. Moderate intensity: VE is achieved predominantly through continued rises in VT whilst RR remains relatively stable. Increasing VT reduces the proportion of each breath wasted in anatomical dead space (the airway space where no gas exchange occurs), thereby maximising the volume of air reaching the alveoli. This is the most efficient ventilatory strategy.[5][7]
  3. High intensity: VT reaches a physiological plateau at approximately 50-60% of vital capacity (VC), the maximal volume of usable air in the lungs.[5] Beyond this point, further increases in VE are driven exclusively by rises in RR, a phenomenon known as the “tachypnoeic shift”.[5][7]
  4. Maximal intensity: VE is driven entirely by rapid increases in RR, with the diaphragm and accessory respiratory muscles working at maximum capacity. The energy cost of breathing alone can account for up to 8-10% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) at this intensity.[5]

Clinical note for physiotherapists: During running specifically, VT is more constrained than during cycling due to the competing demands placed on the diaphragm for both postural stability and ventilation. The tachypnoeic shift therefore occurs earlier during running.[7] This is an important consideration when assessing or prescribing breathing strategies for runners.

Oral Breathing

Although mouth breathing is commonly adopted during exercise, habitual oral breathing carries well-documented negative consequences for respiratory health and general physiological function.[13][14] Air inhaled through the mouth bypasses the protective mechanisms of the nasal cavity, entering the lungs cold, dry, and unfiltered, placing cumulative stress on the respiratory system.[15][16]

Consequences of Habitual Oral Breathing:

Documented consequences of habitual oral breathing include:

  1. Respiratory pathologies: Increased risk of upper respiratory tract infections, rhinitis, and asthma.[7]
  2. Airway structural changes: Oral breathing causes deformity of the soft tissues lining the airways and hypertrophy of the tonsils and adenoids, further compromising airway patency.[17][14][18]
  3. Mechanical inefficiency: Oral breathing directs airflow predominantly to the upper chest rather than the lower lung fields, producing a mechanically inefficient and more fatiguing breathing pattern.[19]

Consequences of Oral Breathing During Exercise

During exercise, the negative consequences of oral breathing are compounded by the increased ventilatory demands of physical activity:

  1. Greater water loss: Oral breathing causes significantly greater respiratory water (H2O) loss than nasal breathing, increasing dehydration risk during prolonged running.[20]
  2. Disrupted blood gas balance: Excessive CO2 loss associated with oral breathing impairs O2 delivery to working muscles.[21][22][23][24] This loss can be described via the Bohr effect;
    • Reduced PCO2 increases haemoglobin affinity for O2, reducing O2 release to the tissues that need it most.[25]
  3. Reduced performance: The combined effects of dehydration and disrupted blood gas homeostasis contribute to decreased wellbeing and impaired sport performance.[25] [26]
  4. Airway narrowing: Oral breathing significantly increases the risk of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB), triggered by the inhalation of cold, dry, unfiltered air that has not been conditioned by the nasal passages.[27]

Nasal Breathing

Nasal breathing offers well-established physiological advantages over oral breathing that support both respiratory health and exercise performance.[24][27] The nasal cavity warms, humidifies, and filters inspired air before it reaches the lower airways, reducing the risk of respiratory infections, allergic reactions, and EIB.[28] [29]

Key evidence-based benefits of nasal breathing include:

  • Improved ventilatory efficiency: Nasal airway resistance slows expiratory airflow, extending the time available for O2 diffusion across the alveolar membrane, contributing to improved gas exchange efficiency compared to oral breathing.[30]
  • Enhanced respiratory muscle activation: The negative intrathoracic pressure created during nasal breathing produces greater diaphragm and accessory inspiratory muscle activation, contributing to more efficient ventilatory mechanics.[31]
  • Improved spinal stabilisation: Enhanced diaphragmatic activation improves intra-abdominal pressure regulation, contributing to spinal stabilisation and reduced musculoskeletal injury risk.[32][33][34]
  • Nitric oxide production: Nasal breathing increases inhalation of nitric oxide (NO), produced in the paranasal sinuses.[35] NO acts as a bronchodilator and vasodilator, enhancing O2 transport throughout the body, and has important antiviral and antibacterial properties.[7][35][36][37]
  • Protection against EIB and asthma: Nasal breathing plays a protective role against EIB and exercise-induced asthma by preventing bronchoconstriction triggered by inhalation of unconditioned air.[38][39][40]

Nasal Breathing During Exercise

Nasal breathing is sufficient to meet ventilatory demands during rest and light-to-moderate intensity exercise and is the recommended breathing strategy.[41] As intensity increases, many runners transition towards oronasal (simultaneous nose and mouth) or oral breathing. This transition is driven by sensations of breathlessness,[42] reduced perceived effort during oral breathing,[43] or the need to reduce nasal airway resistance at high ventilatory rates.[44] The intensity at which this transition occurs varies between individuals and is influenced by sex and training status.[27]

During steady submaximal exercise, nasal breathing produces the following ventilatory outcomes compared to oral breathing:

  • Reduced RR and VE, reflecting a more efficient breathing pattern.[21][23][24]
  • Reduced ventilatory equivalents for O2 and CO2 (VE/VO2 and VE/VCO2), indicating that less ventilation is required to consume a given amount of O2 or eliminate a given amount of CO2.[21][22][24]
  • Lower expired O2 and higher expired CO2 concentrations, indicating more complete gas exchange.[23][22]
  • Reduced incidence of EIB and improved ventilatory efficiency at any given exercise intensity.[45]

In untrained individuals, exclusive nasal breathing may limit attainment of VO2max and peak work capacity due to the ventilatory constraints of nasal airway resistance.[21][22] However, a small number of studies in trained runners suggest that nasal breathing does not significantly impair VO2max or running performance following a sustained period of nasal breathing practice.[22] [24] The evidence base for this finding is currently limited to small-sample studies, and further high-quality research is required before firm conclusions can be drawn.

Clinical note for physiotherapists: When introducing nasal breathing to a runner, a graduated approach is recommended. Begin by establishing nasal breathing at rest and during walking, progressing to easy running before attempting to maintain nasal breathing at moderate intensities. This progression allows the respiratory system to adapt over weeks to months.

Locomotor-Respiratory Coupling

Locomotor-respiratory coupling (LRC) refers to the synchronisation of breathing rhythm with running cadence. LRC is observed in 43-80% of runners and may help regulate breathing rate, reduce the work of breathing, and improve ventilatory efficiency.[46] Common LRC ratios observed include 4:1, 5:1, and 6:1 steps per breath.[7]

Note on terminology: Much of the research literature expresses LRC ratios in strides per breath rather than steps per breath, where one stride comprises two steps. A 2:1 stride-to-breath ratio is therefore equivalent to a 4:1 step-to-breath ratio. Clinicians should be aware of this distinction when interpreting primary research.[47]

LRC is thought to occur through two main mechanisms:

  • Neurological entrainment of breathing rate to movement frequency via type III and IV muscle afferent feedback.[7][46]
  • Mechanical influences of running on the thorax and diaphragm.[7][47]

Runners may benefit from adopting an odd step-to-breath ratio, such as 5:1 or 7:1. This ensures that foot strikes alternate between left and right at the start of each exhalation, which may reduce the risk of exercise-related transient abdominal pain (ETAP), commonly referred to as a side stitch. However, the evidence for LRC reducing injury risk specifically remains limited and emerging, and this recommendation should be applied with clinical judgement.[7][46]

Breathing During Resistance Training

It is worth considering how breathing modality affects resistance exercise performance, as many runners incorporate strength training into their programmes.

Lörinczi et al. (2024)[2] investigated the acute effects of nasal, oronasal, and oral breathing on muscular endurance during a bench press task. Key findings included:

  • No significant difference was observed between breathing conditions for repetitions to failure (RTF), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), or peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), indicating that breathing modality does not significantly impair muscular endurance performance.[2]
  • In male participants, nasal breathing was associated with a significantly lower heart rate response compared to oronasal and oral breathing, potentially reflecting reduced sympathetic nervous system activation. No such difference was observed in female participants.[2]
  • No significant differences in RPE or blood O2 content were observed between sexes or across loading conditions, regardless of breathing modality.[2]
  • Hypoxaemia cannot be induced through resistance exercise to failure regardless of breathing pattern, as SpO2 is maintained within a safe physiological range across all conditions.[48] This indicates that whilst breathing pattern may influence certain cardiovascular responses to resistance training, it does not compromise systemic O2 delivery.

Breathing Techniques: Clinical Applications for Physiotherapists

Physiotherapists are well placed to assess and retrain breathing patterns in runners. Growing evidence from yoga, meditation, and breathwork supports the use of structured breathing techniques to improve respiratory function, reduce perceived effort, manage anxiety, and support recovery.[1]

The following techniques have evidence-based rationale for use with runners and active populations.

1. Diaphragmatic Breathing

What it is: Diaphragmatic breathing, also known as abdominal or belly breathing, involves consciously engaging the diaphragm to produce slow, deep breaths with visible abdominal expansion on inhalation and relaxation on exhalation.[49]

Physiological rationale: Diaphragmatic breathing activates the parasympathetic nervous system,[50] improves intra-abdominal pressure regulation, supports spinal stabilisation, and enhances gas exchange efficiency by directing air to the lower lung fields.[49]

How to apply:

  • Begin in supine or comfortable seated position
  • Instruct the runner to place one hand on the chest and one on the abdomen
  • Guide a slow nasal inhalation over 4 seconds, aiming for the abdomen to rise with minimal chest movement
  • Follow with a slow nasal or oral exhalation over 4-6 seconds
  • Aim for a slight natural pause at end-expiration
  • Progress from 5 minutes at rest to integration during walking and low-intensity running

Clinical use: Diaphragmatic breathing is appropriate as a foundation for all breathing retraining in runners and can be applied pre-run, post-run, and during recovery periods.[1]

2. Box Breathing

What it is: Box breathing (Square breathing) is a structured technique involving four equal phases: inhale, hold, exhale, hold, each of equal duration, typically 4 seconds, forming a square pattern.[51]

Physiological rationale: Box breathing suppresses sympathetic activity, increases parasympathetic response, and improves heart rate variability (HRV).[51] A 2025 study comparing box breathing and 6-breaths-per-minute protocols found that both significantly improved cardiovascular recovery following high-intensity interval training (HIIT).[51]

How to apply:

  • Inhale slowly through the nose for 4 counts
  • Hold for 4 counts
  • Exhale slowly through the nose or mouth for 4 counts
  • Hold for 4 counts
  • Repeat for 4-8 cycles

Clinical use: Box breathing is particularly useful as a pre-competition anxiety management tool, during warm-up routines, or in the immediate post-run recovery period. Its structured and predictable rhythm makes it accessible for athletes new to breathwork.[51]

3. Extended Exhalation Breathing

What it is: Extended exhalation breathing involves making the exhalation phase longer than the inhalation, typically at a ratio of 1:2 (for example, inhale for 4 counts, exhale for 8 counts).[52]

Physiological rationale: Prolonging exhalation increases vagal tone, activates the parasympathetic nervous system, and reduces respiratory rate. It counteracts the effect of anxious, rapid upper-chest breathing.[53]

How to apply:

  • Inhale through the nose for 4 counts
  • Exhale slowly through the nose or pursed lips for 8 counts
  • Allow a natural pause before the next inhale
  • Practise for 5-10 minutes

Clinical use: This technique is effective for managing pre-race anxiety, reducing sympathetic arousal after intense training, and retraining runners who habitually over-breathe at rest. It is also helpful for runners with EID who have developed anxious breathing patterns around running.[52][53]

4. Pranayama Techniques from Yoga

Pranayama, the systematic practice of breath regulation drawn from yoga, encompasses a range of techniques shown to improve respiratory function, reduce perceived effort, and enhance autonomic regulation.[54][55] Three techniques are particularly relevant for runners:

i. Nadi Shodhana (Alternate Nostril Breathing)

What it is: Alternate nostril breathing involves closing one nostril at a time whilst breathing through the other, alternating sides with each breath.[56]

Physiological rationale: Research suggests nadi shodhana positively influences autonomic nervous system function, cardiopulmonary parameters, and cognitive function.[57] It promotes balanced bilateral nasal airflow and may improve nasal breathing capacity.[56]

How to apply:

  • Sit comfortably with the spine upright
  • Using the right hand, place the thumb over the right nostril and the ring finger over the left
  • Close the right nostril and inhale slowly through the left nostril for 4 counts
  • Close both nostrils briefly and hold for 2 counts
  • Release the right nostril and exhale for 4 counts
  • Inhale through the right nostril for 4 counts
  • Close both nostrils and hold for 2 counts
  • Release the left nostril and exhale for 4 counts
  • This completes one cycle; repeat for 5-10 cycles

Clinical use: Useful during cool-down, as part of a pre-sleep recovery routine, or as a nasal breathing awareness exercise for runners who are mouth breathers at rest.[56]

ii. Ujjayi Breathing (Victorious Breath)

What it is: Ujjayi breathing involves nasal inhalation and exhalation with a slight constriction of the glottis (back of the throat), producing a soft oceanic sound. It is frequently used during yoga practice and has been explored as a breathing strategy during low-intensity exercise.[54][58]

Physiological rationale: Ujjayi breathing slows respiratory rate, increases VT, and promotes sustained nasal breathing by introducing mild resistance to airflow, which may mimic the physiological benefits of nasal resistance during breathing.[58]

How to apply:

  • Breathe in and out through the nose
  • Gently constrict the back of the throat as if fogging a mirror, producing a soft internal sound
  • Keep the breath slow, smooth, and controlled
  • Inhalation and exhalation should be of equal or extended duration (4-6 counts each)

Clinical use: Ujjayi can be introduced during slow jogging or as a nasal breathing drill during warm-up to build awareness of breath control. It is particularly useful for runners who struggle to maintain nasal breathing during low-intensity effort.[54]

iii. Kapalabhati (Breath of Fire)

What it is: Kapalabhati involves rapid, forceful, rhythmic exhalations through the nose with passive inhalations. It is typically performed at one exhalation per second for 30-60 cycles.[59]

Physiological rationale: Kapalabhati activates the respiratory muscles, particularly the abdominals and diaphragm, and may improve ventilatory muscle strength and endurance with regular practice.[59]

How to apply:

  • Sit comfortably with the spine upright
  • Take a full nasal breath to prepare
  • Perform rapid, sharp nasal exhalations by contracting the abdominal muscles firmly, allowing inhalation to occur passively
  • Begin with 20-30 repetitions, building to 60-100 with practice
  • Follow each round with several natural nasal breaths

Clinical use: Kapalabhati can be used as a respiratory muscle warm-up tool prior to running, or as part of a structured breathing training programme. It should be introduced gradually and is not recommended for runners with uncontrolled hypertension, dizziness, or acute respiratory conditions.[60]

Important safety note: All pranayama techniques should be introduced in a controlled, supported environment. Hyperventilation symptoms, including dizziness, tingling in the hands, or light-headedness, indicate the technique is being performed too forcefully or too rapidly. Reduce the pace and duration if symptoms occur.[61]

5. Inspiratory Muscle Training

What it is: Inspiratory muscle training (IMT) uses a flow-resistance device, such as a POWERbreathe, to train the inspiratory muscles, primarily the diaphragm and intercostals, against a progressive load.[62][63]

Physiological rationale: Fatigue of the respiratory muscles during high-intensity running can trigger the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex (IMM), a central nervous system response that redirects blood flow from locomotor muscles to respiratory muscles, reducing running performance. IMT reduces this reflex, improving inspiratory muscle strength and exercise tolerance.[64]

A 2025 randomised controlled trial in middle-distance runners found that IMT significantly increased VO2max, peak expiratory flow (PEF), and lactate threshold while reducing lactic acid accumulation.[62]

How to apply:

  • Use an inspiratory threshold training device set to 50-80% of maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP)
  • Complete 2 sets of 30 maximal inspiratory efforts, 5 days per week
  • Progress load over 8 weeks as inspiratory strength improves
  • For runners new to IMT, begin at 50% MIP and progress gradually

Clinical use: IMT is appropriate for runners experiencing early-onset dyspnoea, reduced running performance relative to cardiovascular fitness, or respiratory muscle fatigue. It can be used as a standalone intervention or alongside running training.[63]

6. Nasal Breathing Training Progression for Runners

Introducing nasal breathing as a training strategy requires a structured, graduated approach. The following protocol is based on available clinical and research evidence:[1]

Phase 1 - Awareness (Weeks 1-2):

Establish nasal breathing at rest and during daily activities. Use diaphragmatic breathing exercises for 5-10 minutes daily. Identify habitual oral breathing triggers (for example, stress, desk posture, and sleep position).[65]

Phase 2 - Walking (Weeks 2-4):

Practise nasal breathing during all walking, including brisk walking. Introduce box breathing or extended exhalation breathing during warm-up and cool-down.[1][51]

Phase 3 - Easy Running (Weeks 4-8):

Maintain nasal breathing during easy runs (conversational pace, RPE 3-4/10). Introduce a 5:1 step-to-breath LRC ratio. Use ujjayi breathing as a drill during the first 5-10 minutes of each run.[1][46][58]

Phase 4 - Moderate Running (Weeks 8-12 and Beyond):

Gradually extend nasal breathing to moderate-intensity efforts. Accept that transition to oronasal breathing will occur at higher intensities and is physiologically appropriate. Focus on nasal inhalation with oral exhalation as the minimum standard at high intensity.[1]

Summary and Clinical Implications

The following key points summarise the evidence base and clinical recommendations for breathing pattern during running:

  • Nasal breathing is physiologically superior to oral breathing at rest and during low-to-moderate intensity exercise, offering benefits for gas exchange efficiency, airway protection, NO production, diaphragm activation, and spinal stability.[30][35][41]
  • Transition to oronasal breathing at high exercise intensities is a normal physiological response and should not be discouraged. The goal is to extend the range at which nasal breathing is sustainable through progressive training.[42][43][45]
  • Locomotor-respiratory coupling occurs naturally in most runners and may be consciously applied to improve breathing efficiency and reduce ETAP risk, particularly using odd step-to-breath ratios.[7][46]
  • Breathing during resistance training does not appear to significantly impair muscular endurance performance, though nasal breathing may reduce cardiovascular demand, particularly in male athletes.[2]
  • Breathing retraining techniques drawn from yoga and breathwork, including diaphragmatic breathing, box breathing, alternate nostril breathing, ujjayi, and IMT, are evidence-informed tools that physiotherapists can use to improve respiratory function, reduce anxiety, and support recovery in runners.[54][55][61]
  • Assessment of breathing pattern should be a routine component of running physiotherapy assessment, particularly in runners presenting with EID, reduced performance relative to cardiovascular fitness, or upper-chest breathing at rest.[1]

Conclusion

Breathing mechanics play an important role in running performance, comfort, and rehabilitation. The evidence suggests that nasal breathing offers several physiological advantages during rest and low-to-moderate intensity exercise, including improved air conditioning, ventilatory efficiency, NO availability, diaphragm activation, and airway protection. However, the transition to oronasal or oral breathing at higher intensities is a normal and appropriate response to increased ventilatory demand.

For physiotherapists, the clinical priority is therefore not to enforce one breathing route in all situations, but to assess each runner’s breathing pattern, identify maladaptive strategies, and apply graded breathing retraining where appropriate. Techniques such as diaphragmatic breathing, locomotor-respiratory coupling, inspiratory muscle training, and structured breathwork may support respiratory control, reduce perceived effort, and improve recovery.

Overall, incorporating breathing assessment and education into running rehabilitation provides a practical, evidence-informed way to optimise performance, reduce discomfort, and enhance the runner’s exercise experience.


References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 Harbour E, Stöggl T, Schwameder H, Finkenzeller T. Breath Tools: A Synthesis of Evidence-Based Breathing Strategies to Enhance Human Running. Frontiers in Physiology. 2022:13:1-24.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Lörinczi F, Vanderka M, Lörincziová D, Kushkestani M. Nose vs. mouth breathing– acute effect of different breathing regimens on muscular endurance. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2024:16:42:1-8.
  3. ↑ Laviolette, L, Laveneziana P. Dyspnoea: a multidimensional and multidisciplinary approach. European Respiratory Journal. 2014:43,1750–1762.
  4. ↑ Okrzymowska P, Mackala K, Kucharski W, Rozek-Piechura K. Inspiratory Muscle Training Included in Therapeutic and Training Regimens for Middle-Distance Runners. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2025 Jan;14(9):3180.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 Foster GE, Koehle MS, Lasinsky A, Sheel AW. Pulmonary function: gas exchange between the environment and blood. In: Macronutrients and human health for the 21st century. Calgary: University of Calgary via Open Education Alberta; [date unknown]. Chapter 7.
  6. ↑ Ferretti G, Fagoni N, Taboni A, Bruseghini P, Vinetti G. The physiology of submaximal exercise: The steady state concept. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology. 2017:246:76–85.
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 Harbour E. Breathing pattern during running: measurement and manipulation [dissertation]. Salzburg: Paris Lodron-Universität Salzburg; 2023.
  8. ↑ Naranjo J, Centeno R.A, Galiano D, Beaus M. A nomogram for assessment of breathing patterns during treadmill exercise. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2005:39:80–83.
  9. ↑ Dempsey J. A, La Gerche A, Hull J. H. Is the healthy respiratory system built just right, overbuilt, or underbuilt to meet the demands imposed by exercise? Journal of Applied Physiology. 2020:129:1235–1256.
  10. ↑ Lung Health. Chemoreceptors (Medical Definition), Physiology of Breathing. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1STBUJyyeYg [ last accessed 14/06/2026]
  11. ↑ Mead J. Control of respiratory frequency. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1960:15:325–336.
  12. ↑ Welch J.F, Kipp S, Sheel A.W. Respiratory muscles during exercise: mechanics, energetics, and fatigue. Current Opinions in Physiology. 2019:10:102–109.
  13. ↑ Rangeeth BN, Rangeeth P, Rangeeth MBN. Mouth breathing a habit or anomaly-a review. Journal of Indian Dental Association, Madras. 2019:6:137–143.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Jefferson Y. Mouth breathing: adverse effects on facial growth, health, academics, and behavior. General Dentistry. 2010:58:18–25.
  15. ↑ Emslie RD, Massler M, Zwemer JD. Mouth breathing: I. Etiology and effects (a review). Journal of the American Dental Association. 1952:44:506–521.
  16. ↑ D’Amato M, Molino A, Calabrese G, Cecchi L, Annesi-Maesano I, D’Amato G. The impact of cold on the respiratory tract and its consequences to respiratory health. Clinical Translations in Allergy. 2018:8:20.
  17. ↑ Bonuck KA, Chervin RD, Cole TJ, Emond A, Henderson J, Xu L, Freeman K. Prevalence and persistence of sleep disordered breathing symptoms in young children: a 6-year population-based cohort study. Sleep. 2011;34:875–84.
  18. ↑ Triana BEG, Ahlam HA, León IBG. Mouth breathing and its relationship to some oral and medical conditions: physiopathological mechanisms involved. Revista Habanera De Ciencias Médicas. 2016:15:200–212.
  19. ↑ McKeown P, Macaluso M. Mouth breathing: physical, mental and emotional consequences. Oral Health. 2017.
  20. ↑ Svensson S, Olin AC, Hellgren J. Increased net water loss by oral compared to nasal expiration in healthy subjects. Rhinology. 2006:44:74–77.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Morton AR, King K, Papalia S, Goodman C, Turley KR, Wilmore JH. Comparison of maximal oxygen consumption with oral and nasal breathing. Australian Journal of Science in Medicine & Sport. 1995:27:51–55.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Hostetter K, Mcclaran SR. Triathlete adapts to breathing restricted to the nasal passage without loss in VO2max or vVO2max. Journal of Sport & Human Performance. 2016:4:1–7.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 LaComb CO, Tandy RD, Lee SP, Young JC, Navalta JW. Oral versus nasal breathing during moderate to high intensity submaximal aerobic exercise. International Journal of Kinesiology & Sports Sciences. 2017:5:8–16.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Dallam GM, McClaran SR, Cox DG, Foust CP. Effect of nasal versus oral breathing on Vo2max and physiological economy in recreational runners following an extended period spent using nasally restricted breathing. International Journal of Kinesiology & Sports Science. 2018:6:22–29.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Jensen FB. Red blood cell pH, the Bohr effect, and other oxygenation linked phenomena in blood O2 and CO2 transport. Acta Physiologica Scandinavia. 2004:182:215–227.
  26. ↑ Maughan RJ. Impact of mild dehydration on wellness and on exercise performance. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2003:57:(2):S19–S23.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Dallam G, Kies B. The effect of nasal breathing versus oral and oronasal breathing during exercise: a review. Journal of Sports Research. 2020;7:1–10.
  28. ↑ Allen A. The health benefits of nose breathing. Nursing in General Practice. 2017.
  29. ↑ Ferneini EM, Goupil MT, McNulty MA, Niekrash CE. Applied head and neck anatomy for the facial cosmetic surgeon. Applied Head and Neck Anatomy & Facial Cosmetics Surgeon. 2020:1–256.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Trabalon M, Schaal B. It takes a mouth to eat and a nose to breathe: abnormal oral respiration affects neonates’ oral competence and systemic adaptation. International Journal of Pediatrics. 2012:1–10.
  31. ↑ Trevisan ME, Boufleur J, Soares JC, Haygert CJP, Ries LGK, Corrêa ECR. Diaphragmatic amplitude and accessory inspiratory muscle activity in nasal and mouth-breathing adults: a cross-sectional study. Journal of Electromyography in Kinesiology. 2015:25:463–468.
  32. ↑ Kolar P, Sulc J, Kyncl M, Sanda J, Neuwirth J, Bokarius AV, et al. Stabilizing function of the diaphragm: dynamic MRI and synchronized spirometric assessment. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2010:109:1064–1071.
  33. ↑ Nelson N. Diaphragmatic breathing the foundation of core stability. Strength & Cond Journal. 2012:34:34–40.
  34. ↑ Huxel Bliven KC, Anderson BE. Core stability training for injury prevention. Sports Health. 2013:514–522.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Martina A, Jana P, Anna S, Tomas B. Nitric oxide—important messenger in human body. Open Journal in Molecular Integrrated Physiology. 2012:98–106.
  36. ↑ Arnal JF, Flores P, Rami J, Murris-Espin M, Bremont F, Pasto L, Aguilla M, Serrano E, Didier A. Nasal nitric oxide concentration in paranasal sinus inflammatory diseases. European Respiratory Journal. 1999:13:307–312.
  37. ↑ Ali-Ahmad D, Bonville C. Replication of respiratory syncytial virus is inhibited in target cells generating nitric oxide in situ. Front Bioscience-Landmark. 2003.
  38. ↑ Shturman-Ellstein R, Zeballos RJ, Buckley JM, Souhrada JF. The beneficial effect of nasal breathing on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. American Reviews of Respiratory Disorders. 1978:118:65–73.
  39. ↑ Mangla PK, Menon MPS. Effect of nasal and oral breathing on exercise induced asthma. Clinical Experimental Allergy. 1981:11:433–439.
  40. ↑ Kirkpatrick MB, Sheppard D, Nadel JA, Boushey HA. Effect of the oronasal breathing route on sulfur dioxide-induced bronchoconstriction in exercising asthmatic subjects. American Review of Respiratory Disease. American Review of Respiratory Disease:1982:125(6):627-31.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 LaComb CO, Tandy RD, Lee SP, Young JC, Navalta JW. Oral versus nasal breathing during moderate to high intensity submaximal aerobic exercise. International Journal of Kinesiology & Sports Sciences. 2017:5:8–16.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Saibene F, Mognoni P, Lafortuna CL, Mostardi R. Oronasal breathing during exercise. Pflugers Archives. 1978:378:65–69.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Niinimaa V, Cole P, Mintz S, Shephard RJ. The switching point from nasal to oronasal breathing. Respiratory Physiology. 1980:42(1):61–71.
  44. ↑ Fregosi RF, Lansing RW. Neural drive to nasal dilator muscles: influence of exercise intensity and oronasal flow partitioning. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1995:79:1330–1337.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Dallam G, Kies B. The effect of nasal breathing versus oral and oronasal breathing during exercise: a review. Journal of Sports Research. 2020:7:1–10.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 Harbour E, Rheden VV, Schwameder H, Finkenzeller T. Step-adaptive sound guidance enhances locomotor-respiratory coupling in novice female runners: A proof-of-concept study. Frontiers in sports and active living. 2023 Mar 1;5:1112663.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Daley MA, Bramble DM, Carrier DR. Impact loading and locomotor-respiratory coordination significantly influence breathing dynamics in running humans. PloS one. 2013 Aug 12;8(8):e70752.
  48. ↑ Feldmann A, Schmitz R, Erlacher D. Near-infrared spectroscopy-derived muscle oxygen saturation on a 0–100% scale: reliability and validity of the Moxy monitor. Journal of Biomedical Opticals. 2019:24(11):1-11.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Hamasaki H. Effects of diaphragmatic breathing on health: a narrative review. Medicines. 2020 Oct 15;7(10):65.
  50. ↑ Hamasaki H. Effects of diaphragmatic breathing on health: a narrative review. Medicines. 2020 Oct 15;7(10):65.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 51.4 Kasap M, Aydin GR. Box breathing or six breaths per minute: Which strategy improves athletes post-HIIT cardiovascular recovery? PLoS One. 2025;20(11):e0336615.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Meehan ZM, Shaffer F. Do Longer Exhalations Increase HRV During Slow-Paced Breathing? Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2024;49(3):407-417.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Birdee G, Nelson K, Wallston K, et al. Slow breathing for reducing stress: The effect of extending exhale. Complement Ther Med. 2023;73:102937.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 Mason H, Vandoni M, deBarbieri G, Codrons E, Ugargol V, Bernardi L. Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effect of Yogic Slow Breathing in the Yoga Beginner: What Is the Best Approach? Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013;2013:743504.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Jayawardena R, Ranasinghe P, Ranawaka H, Gamage N, Dissanayake D, Misra A. Exploring the Therapeutic Benefits of Pranayama (Yogic Breathing): A Systematic Review. Int J Yoga. 2020;13(2):99-110.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Jahan I, Begum M, Akhter S, et al. Effects of Alternate Nostril Breathing Exercise on Cardiorespiratory Functions in Healthy Young Adults. Ann Afr Med. 2021;20(2):69-77.
  57. ↑ Chakraborty H, Vinay AV, Sindhu R, Sinha R. Exploring the Immediate Effects of Nadi Shuddhi Pranayama on Heart Rate Variability Among Young Adults. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2025;50(3):525-533.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Usha M, Bhat JS, Radish Kumar B, Bajaj G, Poovitha Shruthi P. Immediate effects of “Ujjayi Pranayama” on aerodynamic, acoustic and self perception parameters of voice in professional voice users. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2022;13(1):100490.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Roj AR, Sharma H, Pundir M, Rai R, Patra S. Yogic Bellows, Neural Sparks: Unravelling the Neurophysiological Mechanisms of Kapalbhati—A Systematic Review. Ann Neurosci. 2025;33(2):211-221.
  60. ↑ Ratankumar Meitei Y. Comparative Study of Kapalbhati and Deep Breathing Exercise on Blood Pressure on Healthy Individuals. IJSR. 2025;14(4):147-151.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Campanelli S, Tort ABL, Lobão-Soares B. Pranayamas and Their Neurophysiological Effects. Int J Yoga. 2020;13(3):183-192.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Okrzymowska P, Mackala K, Kucharski W, Rozek-Piechura K. Inspiratory Muscle Training Included in Therapeutic and Training Regimens for Middle-Distance Runners. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2025;14(9):3180.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Ren Z, Guo J, He Y, Luo Y, Wu H. Effects of Inspiratory Muscle Training on Respiratory Muscle Strength, Lactate Accumulation and Exercise Tolerance in Amateur Runners: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Life (Basel). 2025;15(5):705.
  64. ↑ Lima TBW e, Silva BB dos S, de Souza APS, Aires DMF, Fagundes MG. The effect of inspiratory muscle training on the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex: A systematic review. Can J Respir Ther. 61:51-59.
  65. ↑ Bentley TGK, D’Andrea-Penna G, Rakic M, et al. Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature. Brain Sci. 2023;13(12):1612.
Retrieved from "https://www.physio-pedia.com/w/index.php?title=Running_and_Breathing_Mechanics&oldid=380525"