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== Introduction == | == Introduction == | ||
Physiotherapy is defined as the therapeutic use of physical agents | Physiotherapy is defined as: "the therapeutic use of physical agents or means, such as massage or exercises, to treat disease or injury".<ref name=":4">Prydie D, Hewitt I editors.Practical Physiotherapy for Small Animal Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2015.</ref> The primary purpose of physiotherapy is to restore mobility, function and quality of life to patients. This is achieved by stimulating the healing process to:<ref name=":4" /> | ||
* restore injured tissues | |||
* improve the balance and strength of injured tissues | |||
* stabilise the cardiorespiratory, neurological and musculoskeletal systems | |||
Physiotherapy is seen as a useful adjunct to medicine, both for people and animals.<ref name=":4" /><ref>McGowan CM, Stubbs NC, Jull GA. Equine physiotherapy: a comparative view of the science underlying the profession. Equine veterinary journal. 2007 Jan;39(1):90-4.</ref> Animal physiotherapy is an emerging field<ref name=":0">McGowan CM. Introduction. In: McGowan CM, Goff L editors. Animal Physiotherapy: Assessment, Treatment and Rehabilitation of Animals. Wiley-Blackwell, 2016. p.1-2</ref> and it is recognised as playing an important role in the optimisation of performance and injury prevention in animals.<ref name=":4" />[[File:PA dog walking.jpg|thumb|422x422px]] | |||
== History == | == History == | ||
The first record of animal physiotherapy being practised comes from 1939 when Lord Mountbatten asked the Royal physiotherapist, Sir Charles Strong, to treat his horses.<ref>Calatayud M. A royal history of animal physiotherapy. Available from: http://history.physio/a-brief-history-of-animal-physiotherapy/ (accessed 2 January 2021)</ref> Work in the field evolved from this point | The first record of animal physiotherapy being practised comes from 1939 when Lord Luis Mountbatten asked the Royal physiotherapist, Sir Charles Strong, to treat his horses.<ref>Calatayud M. A royal history of animal physiotherapy. Available from: http://history.physio/a-brief-history-of-animal-physiotherapy/ (accessed 2 January 2021)</ref> Work in the field evolved from this point onwards. The first official animal physiotherapy association, the Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Animal Therapy (ACPAT), was formed in the United Kingdom in 1985.<ref>Veenman P. Animal physiotherapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 2006; 10(4): 317-27.</ref> Then, in 2011, animal physiotherapy was recognised as an official subgroup of the World Confederation of Physical Therapy (WCPT).<ref name=":1">Van Der Walt, A. Introduction to Animal Physiotherapy Course. Physioplus, 2021.</ref> | ||
== Transferring knowledge of human physiotherapy to other species == | == Transferring knowledge of human physiotherapy to other species == | ||
In order for physiotherapists to be able to successfully transfer their assessment and treatment skills to animals, there must be sufficient similarities in structure, function and physiology across species.<ref name=":1" /> There is a growing evidence base to support the notion that these similarities exist | In order for physiotherapists to be able to successfully transfer their assessment and treatment skills to animals, there must be sufficient similarities in structure, function and physiology across species.<ref name=":1" /> There is a growing evidence base to support the notion that these similarities exist:<ref name=":1" /> | ||
It has, for instance, been found that spontaneous canine cancers have a similar pathophysiology and clinical presentation to the equivalent human cancers.<ref>Schiffman JD, Breen M. Comparative oncology: what dogs and other species can teach us about humans with cancer. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015; 370(1673): 20140231.</ref> There are also similarities in terms of the disease progression of osteochondrosis in humans, horses and pigs, including:<ref>McCoy AM, Toth F, Dolvik NI, Ekman S, Ellermann J, Olstad K et al. Articular osteochondrosis: a comparison of naturally-occurring human and animal disease. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2013; 21(11): 1638-47.</ref> | |||
* Clinical presentation | |||
* Changes on MRI and x-ray | |||
* Histological appearance of the end-stage lesion | |||
* Locations affected | |||
Moreover, some knowledge relevant to human physiotherapy has come from animal research. Horses are considered to be appropriate models for research on osteoarthritis of the knee.<ref name=":1" /> Dogs are the animal model of choice for total hip joint replacements.<ref>Skurla CP, Pluhar GE, Frankel DJ, Egger EL, James SP. Assessing the dog as a model for human total hip replacement. Analysis of 38 canine cemented femoral components retrieved at post-mortem. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005; 87(1): 120-7</ref> | Moreover, some knowledge relevant to human physiotherapy has come from animal research. Horses are considered to be appropriate models for research on osteoarthritis of the knee.<ref name=":1" /> Dogs are the animal model of choice for total hip joint replacements.<ref>Skurla CP, Pluhar GE, Frankel DJ, Egger EL, James SP. Assessing the dog as a model for human total hip replacement. Analysis of 38 canine cemented femoral components retrieved at post-mortem. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005; 87(1): 120-7</ref> | ||
== The Role and Scope of Animal Physiotherapists == | == The Role and Scope of Animal Physiotherapists == | ||
Animal physiotherapy is continuing to grow and develop as a profession. Animal physiotherapists work alongside a multidisciplinary team, just as they do in conventional physiotherapy. However, in most countries, animal physiotherapists do not have first-line practitioner status. They generally work on referral from a veterinarian.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, there is a | Animal physiotherapy is continuing to grow and develop as a profession. Animal physiotherapists work alongside a multidisciplinary team, just as they do in conventional physiotherapy. However, in most countries, animal physiotherapists do not have first-line practitioner status. They generally work on referral from a veterinarian.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, there is a requirement that the physiotherapists communicate with the veterinarian who is in charge of managing the animal patient.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
There also needs to be a positive relationship with the animal’s carers. In the case of horses, this may be a large group, including the horse’s owner, rider, trainer, riding instructor, grooms and stableyard manager. There tends to be fewer carers involved in small animal care, but it is still important that each carer’s role in looking after the pet is understood.<ref name=":1" /> | There also needs to be a positive relationship with the animal’s carers. In the case of horses, this may be a large group, including the horse’s owner, rider, trainer, riding instructor, grooms and stableyard manager. There tends to be fewer carers involved in small animal care, but it is still important that each carer’s role in looking after the pet is understood.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
* NB: There are different legal frameworks for animal physiotherapy across the world. If you are interested in this area of practice, it is essential to understand the legal requirements to practise this sort of physiotherapy in your country<ref name=":1" /> | * NB: There are different legal frameworks for animal physiotherapy across the world. If you are interested in this area of practice, it is essential to understand the legal requirements to practise this sort of physiotherapy in your country<ref name=":1" /> | ||
Physiotherapy can be beneficial for animals with a wide range of conditions. It is often indicated post-operatively to correct complications that can occur as a result of surgery. The demand for post-operative animal physiotherapy has kept pace with the growing number of surgical options for small animal patients.<ref name=":0" /> | Physiotherapy can be beneficial for animals with a wide range of conditions. It is often indicated post-operatively to correct complications that can occur as a result of surgery.<ref name=":4" /> The demand for post-operative animal physiotherapy has kept pace with the growing number of surgical options for small animal patients.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
Like conventional physiotherapy, animal physiotherapy is divided into a wide variety of specialities. In | Like conventional physiotherapy, animal physiotherapy is divided into a wide variety of specialities. In animal physiotherapy, the divisions are:<ref>Price H. Introduction to veterinary physiotherapy. Companion Animal. 2014; 19(3): 130-3.</ref> | ||
* Musculoskeletal | * Musculoskeletal | ||
* Respiratory | * Respiratory | ||
| Line 38: | Line 40: | ||
* Sports medicine | * Sports medicine | ||
* Elderly care / geriatrics | * Elderly care / geriatrics | ||
* Developmental problems | |||
=== Musculoskeletal === | === Musculoskeletal === | ||
Injuries or dysfunctions in this area include: soft-tissue injuries, such as sprains / strains or ruptures of ligaments, tendons or muscles; bursitis and bone or joint disease, such as osteochondritis dissecans.<ref name=":4" /> Like in human practice, injuries may be either traumatic or as the result of overuse.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
=== Respiratory === | === Respiratory === | ||
This encompasses the acute care of animals in a hospital, specifically for: | This encompasses the acute care of animals in a hospital, specifically for:<ref name=":4" /> | ||
* post-anaesthetic recovery | * post-anaesthetic recovery | ||
* ventilated animals | * ventilated animals | ||
Respiratory physiotherapy aims to: | |||
* Manage secretions | |||
* Prevent pressure sores | |||
* Prevent atelectasis | |||
* Reduce the work of breathing | |||
* Optimise the ventilation / perfusion ratios | |||
Respiratory techniques include positioning, manual techniques such as percussion or vibrations to remove secretions, neuromuscular techniques, and manual hyperinflation or bagging.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
=== Orthopaedics === | === Orthopaedics === | ||
Post-operative animal physiotherapy can help to enhance a patient's outcomes. The physiotherapist should have a good understanding of a surgeon's protocol prior to commencing a rehabilitation plan (including weight-bearing status and when specific exercises should be introduced).<ref name=":4" /> | |||
=== Neurological === | === Neurological === | ||
Neurological physiotherapy | Neurological physiotherapy occurs after a neurological injury and may involve the rehabilitation of the whole body or just a single limb.<ref name=":4" /> One of the most common neurological dysfunctions in small animals in intervertebral disc disease.<ref name=":2">Colveiro AC, Rauber JS, Ripplinger A, Wrzesinski M, Schwab ML, Pigatto A, Ferrarin DA, Mazzanti A. Neurological and Orthopedic Diseases in Dogs and Cats Submitted to Physiotherapy. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae. 2020 Oct 13;48.</ref> Neurological injuries may be managed conservatively or surgically, but the amount of initial damage can have a major impact on the long-term recovery outcomes.<ref name=":4" /> Common treatments for neurological and orthopaedic dysfunction include:<ref name=":2" /> | ||
* Massage | |||
* Stretching | |||
* Passive joint mobilisation | |||
* Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES)<ref name=":2" /> | |||
Sometimes animal physiotherapists will need to consider long-term assistive solutions, such as providing an animal with wheels, harnesses or splints. These can enable an animal to continue to perform activities of daily living.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
=== Sports medicine === | === Sports medicine === | ||
Animal physiotherapists are also involved in training animals for athletic / sporting activities.<ref name=":4" /> Modalities that reduce recovery time and encourage a return to full fitness are considered vital to protect what are considered “valuable assets”.<ref>Doyle A, Horgan NF. Perceptions of animal physiotherapy amongst Irish veterinary surgeons. Ir Vet J. 2006; 59(2): 85-89. </ref> Animal physiotherapists must be able to provide guidance to owners about appropriate conditioning programmes (that are specific to both the requirements of the sport and the animal).<ref name=":4" /> | |||
Animal physiotherapists | |||
=== Elderly care / geriatrics === | === Elderly care / geriatrics === | ||
Pets, like humans, are living longer, so there are increasing numbers of animals presenting with age-related issues.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3">Rivière S. Physiotherapy for cats and dogs applied to locomotor disorders of arthritic origin. Veterinary Focus. 2007;17(3):32-6.</ref> Appropriate therapeutic interventions can help to slow down conditions such as arthritis and reduce an older pet's discomfort.<ref name=":3" /> It is important to remember that these older patients, like their human counterparts, often present with other co-morbidities, which can complicate the rehabilitation process.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Cottriall S. The geriatric canine and physiotherapy. Companion Animal. 2014; 19: 296-300. </ref> A holistic management approach, including diet, exercise, environment considerations, and pain relief, can help to ensure that these animals stay comfortable and maintain their function for longer.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
=== Developmental problems === | === Developmental problems === | ||
Animal physiotherapists see a large number of young animals with genetic / developmental problems (e.g. hip and elbow dysplasia). These animals can benefit from physiotherapy designed to support their joints.<ref name=":4" /> Physiotherapy management, including hydrotherapy,<ref>Preston T, Wills AP. A single hydrotherapy session increases range of motion and stride length in Labrador retrievers diagnosed with elbow dysplasia. The Veterinary Journal. 2018; 234: 105-10.</ref> can enhance these animals' quality of life and long-term may reduce the likelihood of needing surgery such as total hip replacements.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
== Evidence to Support the Use of Physiotherapy in Animals == | == Evidence to Support the Use of Physiotherapy in Animals == | ||
Revision as of 06:13, 3 January 2021
Original Editor - Alan Jit Ho Mak Top Contributors - Alan Jit Ho Mak, Jess Bell, Tarina van der Stockt, Lucinda hampton, Kim Jackson, Ewa Jaraczewska, Aminat Abolade and Rucha Gadgil
Top Contributors - Alan Jit Ho Mak, Jess Bell, Tarina van der Stockt, Lucinda hampton, Kim Jackson, Ewa Jaraczewska, Aminat Abolade and Rucha Gadgil
Introduction[edit | edit source]
Physiotherapy is defined as: "the therapeutic use of physical agents or means, such as massage or exercises, to treat disease or injury".[1] The primary purpose of physiotherapy is to restore mobility, function and quality of life to patients. This is achieved by stimulating the healing process to:[1]
- restore injured tissues
- improve the balance and strength of injured tissues
- stabilise the cardiorespiratory, neurological and musculoskeletal systems
Physiotherapy is seen as a useful adjunct to medicine, both for people and animals.[1][2] Animal physiotherapy is an emerging field[3] and it is recognised as playing an important role in the optimisation of performance and injury prevention in animals.[1]
History[edit | edit source]
The first record of animal physiotherapy being practised comes from 1939 when Lord Luis Mountbatten asked the Royal physiotherapist, Sir Charles Strong, to treat his horses.[4] Work in the field evolved from this point onwards. The first official animal physiotherapy association, the Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Animal Therapy (ACPAT), was formed in the United Kingdom in 1985.[5] Then, in 2011, animal physiotherapy was recognised as an official subgroup of the World Confederation of Physical Therapy (WCPT).[6]
Transferring knowledge of human physiotherapy to other species[edit | edit source]
In order for physiotherapists to be able to successfully transfer their assessment and treatment skills to animals, there must be sufficient similarities in structure, function and physiology across species.[6] There is a growing evidence base to support the notion that these similarities exist:[6]
It has, for instance, been found that spontaneous canine cancers have a similar pathophysiology and clinical presentation to the equivalent human cancers.[7] There are also similarities in terms of the disease progression of osteochondrosis in humans, horses and pigs, including:[8]
- Clinical presentation
- Changes on MRI and x-ray
- Histological appearance of the end-stage lesion
- Locations affected
Moreover, some knowledge relevant to human physiotherapy has come from animal research. Horses are considered to be appropriate models for research on osteoarthritis of the knee.[6] Dogs are the animal model of choice for total hip joint replacements.[9]
The Role and Scope of Animal Physiotherapists[edit | edit source]
Animal physiotherapy is continuing to grow and develop as a profession. Animal physiotherapists work alongside a multidisciplinary team, just as they do in conventional physiotherapy. However, in most countries, animal physiotherapists do not have first-line practitioner status. They generally work on referral from a veterinarian.[3] Thus, there is a requirement that the physiotherapists communicate with the veterinarian who is in charge of managing the animal patient.[6]
There also needs to be a positive relationship with the animal’s carers. In the case of horses, this may be a large group, including the horse’s owner, rider, trainer, riding instructor, grooms and stableyard manager. There tends to be fewer carers involved in small animal care, but it is still important that each carer’s role in looking after the pet is understood.[6]
- NB: There are different legal frameworks for animal physiotherapy across the world. If you are interested in this area of practice, it is essential to understand the legal requirements to practise this sort of physiotherapy in your country[6]
Physiotherapy can be beneficial for animals with a wide range of conditions. It is often indicated post-operatively to correct complications that can occur as a result of surgery.[1] The demand for post-operative animal physiotherapy has kept pace with the growing number of surgical options for small animal patients.[3]
Like conventional physiotherapy, animal physiotherapy is divided into a wide variety of specialities. In animal physiotherapy, the divisions are:[10]
- Musculoskeletal
- Respiratory
- Orthopaedics
- Neurological
- Sports medicine
- Elderly care / geriatrics
- Developmental problems
Musculoskeletal[edit | edit source]
Injuries or dysfunctions in this area include: soft-tissue injuries, such as sprains / strains or ruptures of ligaments, tendons or muscles; bursitis and bone or joint disease, such as osteochondritis dissecans.[1] Like in human practice, injuries may be either traumatic or as the result of overuse.[1]
Respiratory[edit | edit source]
This encompasses the acute care of animals in a hospital, specifically for:[1]
- post-anaesthetic recovery
- ventilated animals
Respiratory physiotherapy aims to:
- Manage secretions
- Prevent pressure sores
- Prevent atelectasis
- Reduce the work of breathing
- Optimise the ventilation / perfusion ratios
Respiratory techniques include positioning, manual techniques such as percussion or vibrations to remove secretions, neuromuscular techniques, and manual hyperinflation or bagging.[1]
Orthopaedics[edit | edit source]
Post-operative animal physiotherapy can help to enhance a patient's outcomes. The physiotherapist should have a good understanding of a surgeon's protocol prior to commencing a rehabilitation plan (including weight-bearing status and when specific exercises should be introduced).[1]
Neurological[edit | edit source]
Neurological physiotherapy occurs after a neurological injury and may involve the rehabilitation of the whole body or just a single limb.[1] One of the most common neurological dysfunctions in small animals in intervertebral disc disease.[11] Neurological injuries may be managed conservatively or surgically, but the amount of initial damage can have a major impact on the long-term recovery outcomes.[1] Common treatments for neurological and orthopaedic dysfunction include:[11]
- Massage
- Stretching
- Passive joint mobilisation
- Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES)[11]
Sometimes animal physiotherapists will need to consider long-term assistive solutions, such as providing an animal with wheels, harnesses or splints. These can enable an animal to continue to perform activities of daily living.[1]
Sports medicine[edit | edit source]
Animal physiotherapists are also involved in training animals for athletic / sporting activities.[1] Modalities that reduce recovery time and encourage a return to full fitness are considered vital to protect what are considered “valuable assets”.[12] Animal physiotherapists must be able to provide guidance to owners about appropriate conditioning programmes (that are specific to both the requirements of the sport and the animal).[1]
Elderly care / geriatrics[edit | edit source]
Pets, like humans, are living longer, so there are increasing numbers of animals presenting with age-related issues.[1][13] Appropriate therapeutic interventions can help to slow down conditions such as arthritis and reduce an older pet's discomfort.[13] It is important to remember that these older patients, like their human counterparts, often present with other co-morbidities, which can complicate the rehabilitation process.[1][14] A holistic management approach, including diet, exercise, environment considerations, and pain relief, can help to ensure that these animals stay comfortable and maintain their function for longer.[1]
Developmental problems[edit | edit source]
Animal physiotherapists see a large number of young animals with genetic / developmental problems (e.g. hip and elbow dysplasia). These animals can benefit from physiotherapy designed to support their joints.[1] Physiotherapy management, including hydrotherapy,[15] can enhance these animals' quality of life and long-term may reduce the likelihood of needing surgery such as total hip replacements.[1]
Evidence to Support the Use of Physiotherapy in Animals[edit | edit source]
While there are not many well-designed studies to support the use of physiotherapy in animals, massage is one area that has been researched in more detail. It has been proposed that because of similarities in physiology and anatomy between humans and certain animals, massage may confer similar benefits in animals as it does in people. Several studies have explored this hypothesis and found that:[16]
- Manual lymph drainage can reduce experimentally-induced lymphoedema in rats when compared to a control group[6]
- Massaging the caudal thigh muscles of horses increases range of motion when compared to a sham treatment[17]
- The use of relaxing massage may help to calm and relax racehorses and improve race performance[18]
Differences between humans and animals[edit | edit source]
Despite the similarities between humans and animals discussed above, there are also important differences (i.e. quadruped vs biped). It is important to understand the comparative anatomy and biomechanics of each species in order to determine the best treatment option.[6]
Pathogenesis can be different even in shared pathologies or dysfunctions:
- In humans, cruciate ligament ruptures are an acute injury more common in athletes, but in dogs they are the result of chronic disease processes.[19] Therefore, post-operative rehabilitation occurs in the context of chronic deconditioning[6]
- In humans, there are dynamic fluctuations in intervertebral disc disease, but in dogs (particularly chondrodystrophic (i.e. short legged phenotype) dogs like dachshunds), the disc calcifies and if disc material extrudes, surgery is almost always recommended[6]
Human-Animal Dyad[edit | edit source]
The human-animal dyad refers to the relationship between a human caregiver and the animal. This can mimic a parent-child relationship. The dog–human attachment bond, for instance, is said to include all four features of attachment bonds that arise in human caregiver–infant relationships:[20]
- Proximity seeking
- Separation related distress
- Safe-haven effect
- Secure base effect
When assessing animal patients, it is important to remember that all of the information about an animal comes directly from the owner, even when using validated pain measures.[6] The carer's own personality traits and emotions can have a significant impact on the animal.[6] For instance, owners who tend to catastrophise and have higher pain-related anxiety are more likely to catastrophise about their animal’s pain levels or disability.[6] Pain neuroscience education for the owner, therefore, plays an important role in treatment of the animal.[6]
In the case of horses, research shows that there is a high degree of emotional contagion. Emotional contagion is defined as: “the phenomenon of an automatic adoption of an emotional state of another person”.[21] In animal physiotherapy, it refers specifically to the animal reflecting the emotional state of conspecifics (i.e. a member of the same species), or of other animals / individuals in their environment.[6] Horses have been found to demonstrate emotional contagion when observing human-horse interactions.[22]
Understanding these relationships, as well as having an awareness of animal behaviour enables the physiotherapist to approach and handle animal patients in a safe and effective way.[6]
Summary[edit | edit source]
- Animal physiotherapy is a growing area of practice
- While research is limited at present, there is evidence of sufficient interspecies similarities to support the use of human techniques on animals
- Physiotherapy can be beneficial to all animals, but the choice of treatment can be limited by the presence of co-morbidities
- The behaviour of an animal, the level of understanding of the owner and their emotions can influence the outcome of physiotherapy interventions
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 Prydie D, Hewitt I editors.Practical Physiotherapy for Small Animal Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2015.
- ↑ McGowan CM, Stubbs NC, Jull GA. Equine physiotherapy: a comparative view of the science underlying the profession. Equine veterinary journal. 2007 Jan;39(1):90-4.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 McGowan CM. Introduction. In: McGowan CM, Goff L editors. Animal Physiotherapy: Assessment, Treatment and Rehabilitation of Animals. Wiley-Blackwell, 2016. p.1-2
- ↑ Calatayud M. A royal history of animal physiotherapy. Available from: http://history.physio/a-brief-history-of-animal-physiotherapy/ (accessed 2 January 2021)
- ↑ Veenman P. Animal physiotherapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 2006; 10(4): 317-27.
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 Van Der Walt, A. Introduction to Animal Physiotherapy Course. Physioplus, 2021.
- ↑ Schiffman JD, Breen M. Comparative oncology: what dogs and other species can teach us about humans with cancer. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015; 370(1673): 20140231.
- ↑ McCoy AM, Toth F, Dolvik NI, Ekman S, Ellermann J, Olstad K et al. Articular osteochondrosis: a comparison of naturally-occurring human and animal disease. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2013; 21(11): 1638-47.
- ↑ Skurla CP, Pluhar GE, Frankel DJ, Egger EL, James SP. Assessing the dog as a model for human total hip replacement. Analysis of 38 canine cemented femoral components retrieved at post-mortem. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005; 87(1): 120-7
- ↑ Price H. Introduction to veterinary physiotherapy. Companion Animal. 2014; 19(3): 130-3.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Colveiro AC, Rauber JS, Ripplinger A, Wrzesinski M, Schwab ML, Pigatto A, Ferrarin DA, Mazzanti A. Neurological and Orthopedic Diseases in Dogs and Cats Submitted to Physiotherapy. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae. 2020 Oct 13;48.
- ↑ Doyle A, Horgan NF. Perceptions of animal physiotherapy amongst Irish veterinary surgeons. Ir Vet J. 2006; 59(2): 85-89.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Rivière S. Physiotherapy for cats and dogs applied to locomotor disorders of arthritic origin. Veterinary Focus. 2007;17(3):32-6.
- ↑ Cottriall S. The geriatric canine and physiotherapy. Companion Animal. 2014; 19: 296-300.
- ↑ Preston T, Wills AP. A single hydrotherapy session increases range of motion and stride length in Labrador retrievers diagnosed with elbow dysplasia. The Veterinary Journal. 2018; 234: 105-10.
- ↑ Corti L. Massage therapy for dogs and cats. Top Companion Anim Med. 2014; 29(2): 54-7.
- ↑ Hill C, Crook T. The relationship between massage to the equine caudal hindlimb muscles and hindlimb protraction. Equine Vet J Suppl. 2010; (38): 683-7.
- ↑ Kowalik S, Janczarek I, Kędzierski W, Stachurska A, Wilk I. The effect of relaxing massage on heart rate and heart rate variability in purebred Arabian racehorses. Anim Sci J. 2017; 88(4): 669-77.
- ↑ Griffon DJ. A review of the pathogenesis of canine cranial cruciate ligament disease as a basis for future preventive strategies. Vet Surg. 2010; 39(4): 399-409.
- ↑ Payne E, Bennett PC, McGreevy PD. Current perspectives on attachment and bonding in the dog-human dyad. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2015; 8: 71-9.
- ↑ Singer T, Tusche A. Understanding others: brain mechanisms of theory of mind and empathy. In: Glimcher PW, Fehr E editors. Neuroeconomics: Decision making and the brain. London: Elsevier, 2014. p.513-32
- ↑ Trösch M, Pellon S, Cuzol F, Parias C, Nowak R, Calandreau L et al. Horses feel emotions when they watch positive and negative horse-human interactions in a video and transpose what they saw to real life. Anim Cogn. 2020; 23(4): 643-53.
