Skin Microbiome: Difference between revisions

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== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==


The skin is the largest organ of the human body and it serves as a physical barrier that protects the body from invasion by foreign organisms.<ref name=":0">Grice, Elizabeth A, and Julia A Segre. “The skin microbiome.” ''Nature reviews. Microbiology'' vol. 9,4 (2011): 244-53. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2537</ref> The skin is colonized by millions of microorganisms, which make up the skin microbiome. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and mites. As with the gut, the microbiome of the skin plays a role in immunity, healing and health.
The [[skin]] is the largest organ of the human body and it serves as a physical barrier that protects the body from invasion by foreign organisms.<ref name=":0">Grice, Elizabeth A, and Julia A Segre. “The skin microbiome.” ''Nature reviews. Microbiology'' vol. 9,4 (2011): 244-53. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2537</ref> The skin is colonized by millions of microorganisms, which make up the skin [[Microbiome and Movement|microbiome]]. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and mites. As with the gut, the microbiome of the skin plays a role in immunity, healing and health.


{{#ev:youtube|MWE3U3FItlc|300}}<ref>nature video. The skin microbiome: a healthy bacterial balance. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWE3U3FItlc [last accessed 30/12/2022]</ref>
{{#ev:youtube|MWE3U3FItlc|300}}<ref>nature video. The skin microbiome: a healthy bacterial balance. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWE3U3FItlc [last accessed 30/12/2022]</ref>


== Composition of the Skin Microbiome ==
== Composition of the Skin Microbiome ==
The composition of the skin microbiome varies among individuals and between body parts, and it is influenced by several factors.
The composition of the skin microbiome varies among individuals and between body parts, and it is influenced by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors.<ref name=":0" />
 
The site of the skin significantly influences the composition of microorganisms; for example, the arm was observed to have a greater diversity of microbial species than the scalp or axilla.<ref name=":4">Perez Perez, Guillermo I et al. “Body Site Is a More Determinant Factor than Human Population Diversity in the Healthy Skin Microbiome.” ''PloS one'' vol. 11,4 e0151990. 18 Apr. 2016, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151990</ref> Also, ''Staphylococci'' and ''Propionibacteria'' species are the most prevalent at oily skin sites, ''Corynebacteria'' species predominate moist sites with some representation of ''Staphylococci'' species, and dry sites have a mixed population of bacteria but ''β-Proteobacteria'' and ''Flavobacteriales'' are the most prevalent.<ref>Grice, Elizabeth A et al. “Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome.” ''Science (New York, N.Y.)'' vol. 324,5931 (2009): 1190-2. doi:10.1126/science.1171700</ref>Ethnicity is another intrinsic factor that has been found to influence variations in skin microbiome.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Leung, Marcus H Y et al. “Individual and household attributes influence the dynamics of the personal skin microbiota and its association network.” ''Microbiome'' vol. 6,1 26. 2 Feb. 2018, doi:10.1186/s40168-018-0412-9</ref> Gender may also influence the composition of skin microbiome at specific ages and skin sites due to the physiological variations between male and female skin environments, such as hormone metabolism, perspiration rate, and skin surface pH.<ref>Zhai, Wanfang et al. “Profile of the skin microbiota in a healthy Chinese population.” ''The Journal of dermatology'' vol. 45,11 (2018): 1289-1300. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.14594</ref>Aging is another factor that influences the skin microbiome composition, due to skin changes (e.g. changes to sebaceous gland activity) that affect the ecological conditions of the skin.<ref>Bonté F, Girard D, Archambault JC, Desmoulière A. Skin changes during ageing. Biochemistry and Cell Biology of Ageing: Part II Clinical Science. 2019:249-80.</ref>


Aside from host factors, interactions between microorganisms also influence the composition and function of the skin microbiome. Microbial interactions can be competitive, where the presence of one diminishes the presence of another, or synergistic, where their presence is mutually beneficial. For instance, Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the nostrils of about a third of the population and is harmless most of the time, however, it is a major risk factor for serious infection. Certain strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis have been reported to inhibit S. aureus colonization.<ref name=":3" />
Aside from host factors, interactions between microorganisms also influence the composition and function of the skin microbiome. Microbial interactions can be competitive, where the presence of one diminishes the presence of another, or synergistic, where their presence is mutually beneficial. For instance, Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the nostrils of about a third of the population and is harmless most of the time, however, it is a major risk factor for serious infection. Certain strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis have been reported to inhibit S. aureus colonization.<ref name=":3" />

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Introduction[edit | edit source]

The skin is the largest organ of the human body and it serves as a physical barrier that protects the body from invasion by foreign organisms.[1] The skin is colonized by millions of microorganisms, which make up the skin microbiome. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and mites. As with the gut, the microbiome of the skin plays a role in immunity, healing and health.

[2]

Composition of the Skin Microbiome[edit | edit source]

The composition of the skin microbiome varies among individuals and between body parts, and it is influenced by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors.[1]

The site of the skin significantly influences the composition of microorganisms; for example, the arm was observed to have a greater diversity of microbial species than the scalp or axilla.[3] Also, Staphylococci and Propionibacteria species are the most prevalent at oily skin sites, Corynebacteria species predominate moist sites with some representation of Staphylococci species, and dry sites have a mixed population of bacteria but β-Proteobacteria and Flavobacteriales are the most prevalent.[4]Ethnicity is another intrinsic factor that has been found to influence variations in skin microbiome.[3][5] Gender may also influence the composition of skin microbiome at specific ages and skin sites due to the physiological variations between male and female skin environments, such as hormone metabolism, perspiration rate, and skin surface pH.[6]Aging is another factor that influences the skin microbiome composition, due to skin changes (e.g. changes to sebaceous gland activity) that affect the ecological conditions of the skin.[7]

Aside from host factors, interactions between microorganisms also influence the composition and function of the skin microbiome. Microbial interactions can be competitive, where the presence of one diminishes the presence of another, or synergistic, where their presence is mutually beneficial. For instance, Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the nostrils of about a third of the population and is harmless most of the time, however, it is a major risk factor for serious infection. Certain strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis have been reported to inhibit S. aureus colonization.[8]

Role of Skin Microbiome on Immunity[edit | edit source]

The skin microbiome helps to prime the cells of the immune system for response to attacks by pathogens.[1] Commensal microorganisms interact closely with the host immune cells, training T cells to respond to potential pathogen.[9] Staphylococcus epidermidis colonizes the skin during the neonatal period, possibly establishing immune tolerance by the accumulation of commensal-specific regulatory T cells following another exposure later in life.[10] Current evidence suggests that disease states are the results of microbial dysbiosis, which lead to aberrant immune responses both locally and systemically.[11] Atopic Dermatitis is an immune-mediated inflammatory disease of the skin, in which commensal bacteria of the Staphylococcus species - particularly Staphylococcus aureus - are implicated.[11]P. acnes is a commensal skin bacterium that is associated with acne, while Malassezia spp. are skin fungi that are associated with seborrhoeic dermatitis.[1]

Role of Skin Microbiome on Wound Healing[edit | edit source]

The skin microbiome has been found to play a role in wound healing. Staphylococcus epidermidis produces a secretion that reduces inflammation and speeds wound healing by binding to an immune-system receptor. There have been a lot of research into the role of the skin microbiome in the healing of chronic wounds, especially in people with diabetes. People with poorly controlled glucose levels have relatively greater abundance of Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. Colonization. Also, studies have shown that more than half of diabetic foot ulcers are infected, with associations between the clinical features and the colonizing bacterial communities. For instance, Staphylococcus spp., particularly S. aureus, are associated with shallow ulcers and ulcers of short duration; whereas, ulcers that are deep or of long duration tend to have more diverse microbial community, with the presence of anaerobic bacteria and Gram-negative Proteobacteria spp.[8]

Physiological stressors, like metabolic disease, and psychological stressors, such as depression, can modify microbial physiology in a way that increases their virulence, causing nonpathogenic microbes to transit to a pathogenic state. This impairs the body’s wound healing responses, and promotes infections.[9] Studies on the role of microbes in wound healing have yielded contradictory results, hence there is need for more research.[12] A 2014 study found that skin wounds had accelerated and scarless healing when commensal microbes were completely absent.[13] In contrast, another study found that decrease in commensal skin bacteria following oral antibiotic use reduced wound healing rates.[14]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Grice, Elizabeth A, and Julia A Segre. “The skin microbiome.” Nature reviews. Microbiology vol. 9,4 (2011): 244-53. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2537
  2. ↑ nature video. The skin microbiome: a healthy bacterial balance. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWE3U3FItlc [last accessed 30/12/2022]
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Perez Perez, Guillermo I et al. “Body Site Is a More Determinant Factor than Human Population Diversity in the Healthy Skin Microbiome.” PloS one vol. 11,4 e0151990. 18 Apr. 2016, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151990
  4. ↑ Grice, Elizabeth A et al. “Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome.” Science (New York, N.Y.) vol. 324,5931 (2009): 1190-2. doi:10.1126/science.1171700
  5. ↑ Leung, Marcus H Y et al. “Individual and household attributes influence the dynamics of the personal skin microbiota and its association network.” Microbiome vol. 6,1 26. 2 Feb. 2018, doi:10.1186/s40168-018-0412-9
  6. ↑ Zhai, Wanfang et al. “Profile of the skin microbiota in a healthy Chinese population.” The Journal of dermatology vol. 45,11 (2018): 1289-1300. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.14594
  7. ↑ Bonté F, Girard D, Archambault JC, Desmoulière A. Skin changes during ageing. Biochemistry and Cell Biology of Ageing: Part II Clinical Science. 2019:249-80.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Byrd, A., Belkaid, Y. & Segre, J. The human skin microbiome. Nat Rev Microbiol 16, 143–155 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2017.157
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Holmes, Casey J et al. “Dynamic Role of Host Stress Responses in Modulating the Cutaneous Microbiome: Implications for Wound Healing and Infection.” Advances in wound care vol. 4,1 (2015): 24-37. doi:10.1089/wound.2014.0546
  10. ↑ Nakatsuji, Teruaki, et al. “Mechanisms for Control of Skin Immune Function by the Microbiome.” Current Opinion in Immunology, Elsevier Current Trends, 16 Sept. 2021, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0952791521001199#bib0080.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Park, Young Joon, and Heung Kyu Lee. “The Role of Skin and Orogenital Microbiota in Protective Immunity and Chronic Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Disease.” Frontiers, Frontiers, 19 Dec. 2017, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2017.01955/full.
  12. ↑ Johnson, Taylor R et al. “The Cutaneous Microbiome and Wounds: New Molecular Targets to Promote Wound Healing.” International journal of molecular sciences vol. 19,9 2699. 11 Sep. 2018, doi:10.3390/ijms19092699
  13. ↑ Maria C. C. Canesso, Angélica T. Vieira, Tiago B. R. Castro, Brígida G. A. Schirmer, Daniel Cisalpino, Flaviano S. Martins, Milene A. Rachid, Jacques R. Nicoli, Mauro M. Teixeira, Lucíola S. Barcelos; Skin Wound Healing Is Accelerated and Scarless in the Absence of Commensal Microbiota. J Immunol 15 November 2014; 193 (10): 5171–5180. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1400625
  14. ↑ Zhang, Meiling et al. “Oral antibiotic treatment induces skin microbiota dysbiosis and influences wound healing.” Microbial ecology vol. 69,2 (2015): 415-21. doi:10.1007/s00248-014-0504-4
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