Legionnaire's Disease

Original Editors - Itayi Charasika from Bellarmine University's Pathophysiology of Complex Patient Problems project.

Top Contributors - Itayi Charasika, Donald John Auson, Kim Jackson, Kalyani Yajnanarayan, Admin, Elaine Lonnemann, WikiSysop, Adam Vallely Farrell and Nupur Smit Shah  

This article is currently under review and may not be up to date. Please come back soon to see the finished work! (24/03/2020)

Definition/Description

Legionnaires' Disease is a deadly severe form of pneumonia. It can be a cause of community acquired pneumonia or hospital acquired pneumonia. Legionnaires' disease is a lung infection that can be fatal. It is a disease caused by a bacteria, known as Legionella. This disease is often screened for whenever a person is diagnosed with pneumonia because of the close resemblance Legionnaires' has to pneumonia. Legionnaires' disease is commonly acquired from inhaling the bacteria.

Legionnaire's Disease

The history of Legionnaires' Disease can be viewed below under History of Disease.

The bacteria, Legionella, in Legionnaires' disease can also lead to Pontiac Fever, which is like a milder version of Legionnaires' disease. Pontiac Fever resembles a mild and self-resolving flu-like disease. If a person is diagnosed with both illnesses, then the term is Legionellosis. Unlike Legionnaires' disease, Pontiac Fever usually resolves on its own after 2-5 days.

                     

History of Disease: Legionnaires' disease first came about in 1967 when a group of people in Philadelphia, attending an American Legion convention meeting became exposed to this disease.  View Legionnaire's Disease video below or please visit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8oTf2bGCt-Y.  

Etiology

The pathogen causing Legionnaires' Disease came from the Legionellaceae family of bacteria. Although the family Legionellaceae now contains more than 40 species, L. pneumophila causes over 90% of human infections. L micdadei, the second most frequently isolated species in human infection, evidently has lower virulence for humans than L. pneumophila as it appears to infect only immunocompromised hosts. Water is the major natural reservoir for Legionella, and the pathogen is found in many different natural and artificial aquatic environments such as cooling towers or water systems in buildings, including hospitals.

Common places that allow Legionella transmission:
1. Potable (drinking) water systems
2. Whirlpool spas
3. Cooling towers 

                                                                                                                                                                  
Conditions for Legionella transmission:
1. Heat
2. Stasis
3. Aerosolization

Prevalence

Accurate data reflecting the true incidence of disease are not available because of underutilization of diagnostic testing and under-reporting. It is a common cause of severe pneumonia requiring hospitalization.

Facts:

• Responsible for ~ 5% of all pneumonias⁴
• 12,000 people affected yearly in the U.S.⁴
• Severe, sometimes fatal disease⁴
• Each year an estimated 8,000-18,000 hospitalized cases occur in the U.S.¹⁰
• The majority of reported cases are sporadic¹⁰
• Travel-associated outbreaks, outbreaks in community settings, and nosocomial and occupational outbreaks are common¹⁰
• More than 20% of all cases are thought to be associated with recent travel¹⁰
• Difficult to detect among travelers because of the low attack rate, long incubation period, and the dispersal of persons  from the source of the outbreak¹⁰
• Present rate is that 80% of those contracting the disease die²⁶

 

For recent breaking news on Legionnaire's Disease regarding California health officials investigating a mystery illness at the Playboy mansion possibly caused by a fog machine, please visit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xk5dEOYtPbw&feature=fvsr.

♦ Legionnaire's Disease is not only found in the United States, but it is worldwide. ♦

                                                                  

  

Associated Comorbidities

People at risk:

• Smokers (esp. Middle-aged/older adults who smoke cigarettes)
• Chronic lung disease
•  Advanced age
• Alcohol abuse
• Surgery
• Recent travel with an overnight stay outside of the home
• Exposure to whirlpool spas
• Recent repairs or maintenance work on domestic plumb
• Immune system compromised by

          o DM
          o Renal Failure
          o Cancer (esp. hematological or pulmonary malignancy)
          o AIDS

Characteristics/Clinical Presentation

For patient stories on contracting Legionnaire's Disease, visit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5tL69KVTZg.

 

Many patients report having the following symptoms:  

♦ S/S: Fevers, chills, dry or productive cough, fatigue, anorexia, headache, myalgia, diarrhea, muscle aches, & gastrointestinal symptoms

Systemic Involvement

► Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and anorexia.

► Neurologic symptoms include headache, lethargy, altered mental status, and rarely, focal symptoms.

► Musculoskeletal symptoms include arthralgias and myalgias.

► Nonpulmonary symptoms are prominent early in the disease.

Diagnostic Tests/Lab Tests/Lab Values

Legionnaire’s disease is diagnosed by growing bacteria on a special medium and silver staining. The bacteria is identified in the sputum and the Legionella antigen is seen in the urine⁴.

                         
What diagnostic tests can confirm Legionnaires' disease? (http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/faq.htm⁹)

Diagonostic Tests

Test	Advantages	Disadvantages
Culture	- Clinical & Environmental isolates can be compared - Detects all species & serogroups - 100% specific	- Technically difficult - Slow (>5 days to grow) - Sensitivity highly dependent on technical skill - May be affected by antibiotic treatment
Urine Antigen	- >99% specific... - Rapid (same day)	- ...but only for L. pneumophila serogroup 1 (Lp1) [ which may account for up to 80% of cases] - Limited utility when compared to environmental isolates
Serology	- Not affected by antibiotic treatment - 70-80% sensitive; >90% specific	- Must have paired sera - 5-10% of population has titer 1:≥256 Single acute phase antibody titers of 1:≥256 do not discriminate between cases of Legionnaires' disease and other causes of community-acquired pneumonia.
DFA	- Can be performed on pathologic specimens - 95% specific	- 25-75% sensitive

Medications

► Erythromycin (the drug of choice for prolonged period) - given early

► Rifampin is also a benefit

Newer Effective Therapeutic Options Include Antibiotics (Macrolides)⁴:
► Clarithromycin

► Azithromycin

► Fluoroquinolones

Patients diagnosed with Legionnaire's Disease are prescribed to take the various medications. 

For patients with Pontiac fever: it is a self-limited illness that does not benefit from antibiotic treatment. Complete recovery usually occurs within 1 week¹⁰.

Physical Therapy Management

► Screening Questions:

    - Have you traveled recently? (Patient could have traveled-associated Legionnaire’s disease (http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/faq.htm⁹)

► Top 10 Things Every Clinician Needs to Know About Legionellosis (http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/top10.htm¹⁰)

What does the diagnosis of Legionnaire’s disease include? Two clinical syndromes:

Legionnaire's Disease vs. Pontiac Fever

	Legionnaires' disease	Pontiac fever
Clinical Features	Pneumonia: cough, fever, chest pain	Flu-like illness (fever, chills, malaise) without pneumonia
Radiographic pneumonia	Yes	No
Incubation period	2-14 days after exposure	24-48 hours after exposure
Etiologic agent	Legionella species	Legionella species
Attack rate*	< 5%	> 90%
Isolation of organism	Possible	Virtually never
Outcome	Hospitalization common Case-fatality rate: 5-40%**	Hospitalization uncommon Case-fatality rate: 0%
Additional Below*

  * Percent of persons who, when exposed to the source of an outbreak, become ill.
** Percent of persons who die from Legionnaires' disease or Pontiac fever.

Tests In Relationship to Snout/Spin

Test	Sensitivity (%)	Specificity (%)
Culture	80	100
Urine antigen	70	100
Paired serology*	70-80	>90
Direct fluorescent antibody stain	25-75%	95
*Note: A single antibody titer of any level is not diagnostic of legionellosis

 

► Patient Care: Respiratory Therapists/PTs: O² therapy, repositioning, postural drainage, suctioning⁴

► Monitor: Chest wall expansion, depth/pattern of ventilations, cough, chest pain, restlessness, & hypoxemia⁴

► Signs of Shock: ↓ blood pressure, tachycardia w/weak thread pulse, diaphoresis, clamy skin, & cold⁴

► Patient Education: Pulmonary hygiene, deep breathing and coughing exercises, chest physiotherapy, postural drainage, disposal of solid tissues to prevent disease transmission⁴

Differential Diagnosis²⁵

• Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
• Bronchitis
• Congestive heart failure
• Gastroenteritis
• HIV infection and AIDS
• Inflammation of the rib cartilage (costochondritis)
• Meningitis
• Non-Legionnaire's pneumonia
• Pleural effusion
• Pneumonia caused by other organisms
• Prostatitis
• Septic shock
• Tuberculosis

Case Reports/ Case Studies

•Atypical Presentation of Legionnaire’s Disease: A Case Report and Review
•Severe Legionnaires disease complicated by multi-organ dysfunction in a previously healthy patient: a case report [7]
•Legionnaires Disease: A Case Study

Resources

• Legionella(Legionnaire' Disease and Pontiac Fever)- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Legionella.org
• Natural Remedies Encyclopedia
  

References

20. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/legionnaires-disease/DS00853
21.http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/legionnairesdisease.html & picture
22. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000616.htm
24. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/783656-overview
25. http://www.mdguidelines.com/legionnaires-disease/differential-diagnosis