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Adult Learning Styles and Principles

Original Editor - Tarina van der Stockt based on the course by Claire Boulanger
Top Contributors - Jess Bell, Wanda van Niekerk, Tarina van der Stockt and Kim Jackson


Introduction

There is no universal learning method. Various approaches exist, and their effectiveness depends on the specific task, context, and the learner's personality. Understanding the range of available learning methods and knowing when to apply them may lead to more efficient and effective learning.[1]

How far teaching should be tailored to individual learning styles is debated. Learners can't always choose how content is delivered, but educators who carefully consider their students' learning styles and preferences and customise educational materials accordingly may enhance engagement, satisfaction, and overall academic success.[1] Some research, however, challenges the assumption that matching teaching/training methods to individual learning styles improves learning outcomes. It suggests instead that trainers focus on proven strategies and the principles of adult learning.[2] It has been suggested that this approach helps adult learners develop the ability to adapt their learning approaches to different situations.[3]

This page provides an overview of four well-known learning styles, explores the principles of adult learning, and presents strategies to create environments that promote learning.

Learning Styles

While learning style theories have limitations,[4] various frameworks provide useful insights for trainers. Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed a "learning style model specifically tailored for organisational settings." This model is popular in corporate training and development environments. This framework can help organisations design effective training programmes, fostering a learning culture that meets the workforce's diverse needs and requirements.[5] To maximise personal learning, Honey and Mumford also suggested that it is helpful if a person understands and finds opportunities to learn using their unique learning style.[6]

Honey and Mumford suggested four learning styles or preferences that people use.[1][7]

Activists learn by doing, thriving on new experiences and opportunities. They tend to act first and worry about the consequences later, thriving when thrown in at the deep end. They find it useful to role-play, learn through games, and problem-solve with others, and they often have the ability to lead a group. They find it less helpful to listen to lectures or lengthy explanations, or to complete solitary tasks, such as reading, writing, and thinking on their own, and they learn less when they have to interpret large amounts of data or follow exact instructions.[1][7]

Theorists learn best when they understand the relevant theory or principles and have a model, system, or structured situation with a clear goal. They do well when they can analyse, ask questions, probe, and synthesise, and when they need to make sense of complex problems. They tend not to learn in situations where emotions and feelings are emphasised, or when the activity is unstructured.[1][7]

Pragmatists like to apply new ideas. They are practical, like to get things done, and dislike leaving things open-ended. They learn best when there is a direct link to practice and clear guidelines to follow, when they can copy an example, and when they are shown a technique and understand the reasoning behind it. They learn less when they cannot see an immediate practical benefit or consider something to be only theory.[1][7]

Reflectors learn by observing and listening, needing time to think and investigate before they act. They need time to review and consider all angles and implications, and they learn best without tight deadlines. They learn less when they have to lead a group, work to tight deadlines, or are caught unprepared.[1][7]

[8]

Malcolm Knowles and Principles of Adult Learning

Adult Learning Theory is an approach that recognises the unique characteristics of adult learners, moving away from standardised education models. It considers adults' past experiences, current obligations, and individual motivations. This understanding allows educators to develop customised learning strategies that are effective, engaging, and pertinent to adult learners. Malcolm Knowles, an American educator, introduced this concept in 1968, and it is now widely referred to as Adult Learning Theory.[9][10]

Key definitions:[11]

  • andragogy: the science of teaching adults to learn
  • pedagogy: teaching children or dependent learners

A key idea within Knowles's theory is that adults learn differently to children because they have different experiences, motivations, and orientations. However, some principles within andragogy overlap with pedagogy, and it has been argued that adult learning is a natural continuum of children's learning. This makes "learning a lifelong "continuum" with different purposes at different stages."[12]

Knowles defined self-directed learning (SDL) as a process where a person determines their learning needs, creates goals, and finds learning resources, with or without help.[13] The person takes responsibility and the initiative for their own learning[3] with the educator as a facilitator.[13][14]

According to Knowles, the key components of self-directed learning include:[13]

  • identifying learning needs
  • developing learning objectives
  • identifying resources
  • implementing processes
  • having a commitment to learning
  • learning process evaluation

Self-directed learning is an important concept in adult learning. While having control over when, where and at what speed you learn is necessary for self-directed learning, it is not the main focus. Equally important is building on a learner's capacity for reflection, critical thinking and the knowledge of different learning options. Just because a person is an adult does not make them a self-directed learner. However, it is important to treat adult learners as self-directed learners as it positively impacts their self-image. Learning independently is good for personal growth, but also for professional development and society as a whole. Therefore, trainers have an important responsibility: they need to recognise that not all adult learners have the same capability or desire for self-directed learning. As a result, trainers should adjust their training approaches to match each adult learner's readiness for self-direction. For the creation of effective learning experiences, trainers need to be aware of the individual differences in adult learners' ability and willingness to learn independently.[3]

Principles of Adult Learning

Understanding adult learning theories (andragogy) is beneficial for healthcare educators because:

  • evidence-based practice includes educational philosophies and theories
  • they guide the educator in selecting the appropriate objectives
  • they inform instructional design and assessment
  • the educator can improve student learning by integrating learning theories, content matter, and student understanding[12]

The principles of adult learning are fundamental concepts that guide effective education for adult learners. There are many adult learning principles.

The following tables include some of the most common adult learning principles with tips for the educator. [15][9][10][16][17][18]

Table 1. Common Adult Learning Principles and Tips for Educators.
Principle Tips for Educators
Adult learners have a wealth of knowledge and life experiences and like to share it. Build on and make use of adults’ knowledge and experience. They learn better when linking the content to their professional and personal experiences.
Adults want to know why they should learn something and how it will help them accomplish their goals before investing their time, money and energy into the learning event. Explain the purpose of the training by sharing the goal and specific learning objectives and contextualise the training. They need to know why the content is important for learning.
Adults enjoy being active in learning and interacting with others. Prioritise participatory methods and motivate learners to share their knowledge and experiences.
Adults are most willing to learn when they see the relevance of the knowledge to their tasks or problem-solving. They learn best when the information has immediate value and applies to their lives and work. Make sure that the training relates to the situations an adult faces. Make use of case studies and real-life experiences.
Adults respond better to internal motivators (such as increased self-esteem, recognition, better quality of life, increased self-confidence and self-actualisation) than external ones (such as salary growth). They learn best when they are intrinsically motivated. Create a safe learning environment to boost internal motivation. Examples: give meaningful feedback, no pressure, no challenge, no judgement, etc.
Adults appreciate being engaged and having fun. As appropriate, make the training engaging and fun.
Adults are self-directed learners. They prefer to have a say in what they learn and how they learn. Support the learner in directing their learning and give them a reason to learn.
[19]
[20]
[21]

Becoming an Expert

Expertise develops over time, progressing through stages, from novice to advanced beginner, proficient, competent, and expert.[22] Being an expert in one field does not mean that you are an expert in another field. Thus, it is field-dependent or domain-specific.[22] [23]

Adaptive experts can apply their knowledge across different situations due to their strong metacognitive skills while routine experts excel in familiar environments, but struggle when faced with new or changing conditions.[23][24]

The following table indicates how experts and expert learners differ from novices and provides guidance for addressing differences in learning environments.[22][23] [25]

Table 2. Differences between Experts / Expert Learners and Novices.
Expert/ Expert Learner Novice Instructional Guidance
They have a strong foundational knowledge base to support understanding, not just recall. Their knowledge is organised and integrated. Novices struggle to retain new knowledge because they lack prior knowledge to connect it to, and they often don't recognise key patterns or principles in a field. Understand what students already know. When they come to class, their knowledge and any misunderstandings will influence what they learn during the lesson.
Expert knowledge is conditional. This means that experts understand how and when to apply their knowledge based on specific situations or conditions. They recognise patterns and know that specific strategies or pieces of information are useful only under particular circumstances. This ability allows them to adapt their approach depending on the context. Thus, with experience, an expert’s knowledge becomes decontextualised. Novices see knowledge as context-dependent and a collection of isolated facts. They struggle to make connections with previously learned knowledge. Their learning is organised in a way that works in specific contexts but does not transfer well to other areas. To help learners decontextualise and improve learning, teachers should use diverse approaches: vary perspectives, provide frequent recall practice, mix test formats, space out assessments, connect ideas across contexts, and offer specific feedback with resources for further help. Use contrasting examples to highlight key points when teaching. Present two cases with specific differences to illustrate important concepts. Experts can often spot subtle contrasts between complex cases that novices might miss. Therefore, begin with simple contrasting cases and gradually increase complexity as learner understanding improves.
They have superior strategies for automatically and fluently retrieving knowledge and using their knowledge. During problem-solving, they recognise meaningful patterns more readily, which frees up mental energy (cognitive demand) so that they can focus on new knowledge to add to the pattern. When a novice retrieves information, it places a huge cognitive demand on their attention. During problem-solving, the novice does not notice meaningful connections with the information. To foster expert problem-solving skills, teachers should guide students in creating visual representations of problems, categorising information by relevance or themes, and identifying constraints.

Focus on teaching students to recognise patterns, connections, and key relationships within problem scenarios, ultimately leading them to identify clear solutions.


Reveal the thought processes:

  1. Encourage students to participate in activities that expose the steps and reasoning behind their thoughts, not just the final outcomes.
  2. Demonstrate expert thinking by clearly explaining the strategies and methods that are often implicit in the thinking of an expert.
They are self-regulated and have different motivations. Their metacognitive awareness is higher, enabling them to understand what they know and don’t know, and to be strategic and flexible in their planning.

Experts are better at self-monitoring, knowing when to check for errors, understanding why they may not grasp a situation, and adjusting their efforts for better outcomes.

This awareness helps experts predict the difficulty of tasks and allocate time effectively for problem-solving.

They often struggle to monitor their learning and may not realise if they have understood or mastered the material.

This relates to the Dunning-Kruger effect, where less skilled individuals overestimate their abilities.

Novices are less likely to use self-testing or self-questioning to correct mistakes or adjust their learning strategies.

The key is to teach students meta-cognitive skills like self-reflection and self-assessment. This enables them to independently evaluate and oversee their own work and learning progress.


An expert's smooth and effortless performance can hide the key principles and strategies that a novice needs to learn to improve. These principles are so natural to the expert that they might not even be aware of them, and a beginner watching the expert might not notice them either, since they are woven into the expert's actions without being obvious.[23]

Create Environments that Promote Learning

The most effective learning environments integrate the following four interdependent elements.[25][23]

1. Learner-centred environments focus on understanding and addressing the existing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that students bring to their education. Teachers must recognise that learning builds upon prior knowledge and that they need to help students make connections between prior knowledge and their current learning. It is crucial that educators identify and address any misconceptions, incomplete understandings, or naive concepts that students may have at the beginning of a course. Ignoring these can lead to unintended learning outcomes. Effective learner-centred teaching involves presenting appropriately difficult challenges - engaging enough to maintain interest but not so hard as to discourage students. This requires teachers to have a good grasp of their students' current knowledge, skill levels, and interests.

2. Knowledge-centred environments focus on helping students acquire well-organised information that promotes understanding and adaptability. These environments emphasise clear learning goals, explicitly informing students about the knowledge they'll gain and its applications. They focus on building a strong foundation of basic concepts, which serves as a platform for further learning. Knowledge-centred approaches align with learner-centred ones by considering students' preconceptions about the subject matter. They also emphasise information and activities that foster a deeper understanding of disciplines. The aim is to help students gain knowledge in ways that enable comprehension and application across various contexts.

3. Assessment-centred environments provide regular opportunities for feedback, focusing on understanding rather than memorisation. They emphasise formative assessments, which allow students to revise and improve their thinking, rather than just summative assessments that measure final learning outcomes. The goal is to develop students' meta-cognitive abilities for self-assessment and reflection. Formative assessments, like teacher comments on drafts, help improve ongoing learning. Summative assessments, such as end-of-unit tests, measure overall achievement. The focus here is on classroom-based assessments that enhance learning, like formative assessments.

4. Community-centred environments promote collaborative learning, active participation, and continuous improvement. They extend beyond the classroom, fostering connections within the school and wider community. This approach encourages learning from mistakes and from peers and balancing support with challenges to enhance overall learning outcomes. It recognises the importance of community in enhancing learning outcomes. Enhancing teacher learning involves creating communities of practice, fostering peer collaboration and active participation in educational research and implementation.

Teaching Techniques to Enhance Adult Learners' Experience in the Rehabilitation Profession

A variety of teaching techniques can be used to enhance the learning experience of adult learners in the rehabilitation profession.[26]

Simulation

  • learners are able to gain an understanding of clinical competencies in a safe environment
  • communication skills, confidence and preparedness for clinical encounters are developed
  • provides opportunities for reflection and discussion during debriefing sessions

Case studies

  • help reinforce knowledge and allow learners to apply their knowledge to real-life scenarios
  • improve and promote knowledge retention, critical thinking and clinical decision-making
  • can be used across multiple courses/modules to build on previous knowledge

"Flipping" the classroom

  • pre-class work assigned to learners to complete independently
  • uses active learning techniques such as case studies, role-play and discussions in the learning environment
  • helps make learners even more self-directed and improves critical thinking skills

Debates

  • generate dialogue and active engagement among adult learners
  • improve critical thinking, communication and teamwork
  • help learners form new perspectives and challenge preconceived notions of learners
[27]
[28]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Rosewell J. Learning styles. The Open University. Technology: level. 2005;1
  2. ↑ Hattie J, O’Leary T. Learning styles, preferences, or strategies? An explanation for the resurgence of styles across many meta-analyses. Educ Psychol Rev. 2025;37(31).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Loeng S. Self‐directed learning: A core concept in adult education. Education Research International. 2020;2020(1):3816132.
  4. ↑ Affognon DA. The theory that cannot learn: A conceptual–analytical critique of modality-based learning styles. Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 2026;13:102989.
  5. ↑ Oladele OK. The History and Evolution of Learning Style Theory. October, 19. 2024.
  6. ↑ Oliveira A, Spinola V, Garrido D, Teixeira MM, Salles C, Haddad AE. Influence of learning styles on student performance in self-instructional courses. Plos one. 2023 Jul 27;18(7):e0289036.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Yamakita N, Kanaya K, Agata M, Maruyama T, Kubota Y, Yokota A, et al. Impact of resilience, learning styles, and instruction quality on medical students' experiences in microsurgical suturing training: a web-based questionnaire study. BMC Med Educ. 2026 Mar 31;26(1):745.
  8. ↑ Apropos Productions Ltd. Learning Styles. 2020. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2N3VjCzMYZY
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Gutierrez K. Adult learning theories every e-learning designer must know. Learning Technologies. 28 Feb 2021.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 New England Institute of Technology. Everything You Needed to Know About Adult Learning Theory. 8 April 2021.
  11. ↑ Center for Online Learning, Research and Service. University of Illinois Springfield. Pedagogy, Andragogy and Heutagogy. Available from: https://www.uis.edu/colrs/teaching-resources/foundations-good-teaching/pedagogy-andragogy-heutagogy#:~:text=Pedagogy%20is%20the%20teaching%20of,who%20are%20self%2Ddirected%20learners. (accessed 24 November 2024).
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Mukhalalati BA, Taylor A. Adult learning theories in context: a quick guide for healthcare professional educators. Journal of medical education and curricular development. 2019 Apr;6:2382120519840332.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Murad MH, Varkey. Self-directed learning in health professions education. Annals Academy of Medicine Singapore. 2008;37(7):580. 
  14. ↑ Navas Bonilla CdR, Viñan Carrasco LM, Gaibor Pupiales JC, Murillo Noriega DE. The future of education: a systematic literature review of self-directed learning with AI. Future Internet. 2025; 17(8):366.
  15. ↑ Feder M. Adult learning theory: The principles of andragogy. University of Phoenix. Updated 12 Feb 2024.
  16. ↑ Claire Boulanger. Physiopedia Plus Course. 2024
  17. ↑ El-Amin A. Andragogy: A theory in practice in higher education. Journal of Research in Higher Education. 2020;4(2).
  18. ↑ Dong H, Lio J, Sherer R, Jiang I. Some learning theories for medical educators. Medical science educator. 2021 Jun;31:1157-72.
  19. ↑ The L&D Academy. What are the Adult Learning Principles? 2022. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5FlW4-NKXE [last accessed 1/9/2024]
  20. ↑ Rebecca J. Hogue. Principles of Andragogy. 2019. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UgNeWsbKDUY [last accessed 1/9/2024]
  21. ↑ PHILO-notes. Knowles’s Adult Learning Theory. 2022. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vhn1WA5bgWw [last accessed 1/9/2024]
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Persky AM, Robinson JD. Moving from novice to expertise and its implications for instruction. American journal of pharmaceutical education. 2017 Nov 1;81(9):6065.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 How People Learn. Center for Teaching. Vanderbilt University.
  24. ↑ Hissink E, Pelgrim E, Nieuwenhuis L, Bus L, Kuijer-Siebelink W, van der Schaaf M. Measuring adaptive expertise and adaptive performance in (becoming) healthcare professionals: a scoping review of measurement instruments. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2025 Nov;30(5):1665-1691.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Bransford JD, Brown AL, Cocking RR. How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school: Expanded Edition. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 2000.
  26. ↑ Lewis N, Bryan V. Andragogy and teaching techniques to enhance adult learners’ experience. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice. 2021 Jul;11(11):31-40.
  27. ↑ University of St. Augusting for Health Sciences. OT Students Practice ADL Skills with Mock Patients in Simulated Home — USAHS. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xH4Ysd46MHc[last accessed 13/11/2024]
  28. ↑ Medmastery. Why the Flipped Classroom works in medical education. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAxBKnmyO9E&t=22s[last accessed 13/11/2024]
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