Visual Motor Integration: Difference between revisions

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== Background  ==
== Background  ==


The integration of visual and motor skills holds significance in the development of children. It is closely linked to various functional abilities and the capacity to engage in daily tasks<ref>Marr D, Cermak S. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11032620_Predicting_handwriting_performance_of_early_elementary_students_with_the_developmental_test_of_visual_motor_integration Predicting handwriting performance of early elementary students with the developmental test of visual-motor integration]. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 95(1): 661-669</ref>. For instance, visual-motor integration plays a crucial role in the acquisition of handwriting skills<ref>Volman MJM, van Schendel B, Jongmans MJ. [https://atinternetmodules.org/storage/ocali-ims-sites/ocali-ims-atim/documents/Handwriting_difficulties_inprimary_school_underlying_mechanisms.pdf Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms.] American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2006; 60(4): 451-460</ref>. Approximately 10% to 30% of school-aged children are estimated to encounter difficulties with handwriting<ref>Karlsdottir R, Stefansson T. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11345573_Problems_in_developing_functional_handwriting Problems in developing functional handwriting]. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 94(2): 623-662</ref>.Various research has noted that visual-motor integration is a significant predictor of handwriting performance<ref name=":0" /><ref>Feder KP, Majnemer A. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227869132_Handwriting_development_competency_and_intervention Handwriting development, competency, and intervention]. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2007; 49(4): 312-317</ref>.This is especially in the early grades, as younger students often depend more on visual feedback and motor information to guide their movements when forming and replicating letters<ref>Klein S, Guiltner V, Sollereder P, Cui Y. Relationships between fine-motor, visual-motor, and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed. Physical & Occupation Therapy in Pediatrics. 2011; 31(1): 103-114</ref><ref>Overvelde A, Hulstijn W. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49787840_Handwriting_development_in_grade_2_and_grade_3_primary_school_children_with_normal_at_risk_or_dysgraphic_characteristics Handwriting development in grade 2 and grade 3 primary school children with normal, at risk, or dysgraphic characteristics]. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011; 32(2): 540-548</ref>. Beyond its impact on the development of handwriting, difficulties in visual-motor integration are likely to have repercussions on academic performance in areas such as reading and mathematics<ref>Sortor JM, Kulp MT. [https://lynnhellerstein.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/VMI-and-subtests-and-acad-final.pdf Are the results of the Beery-Buktenica developmental test of visual-motor integration and its subtests related to achievement test scores?] Optometry and Vision Science. 2003; 80(11): 758-763</ref>.<br>  
The integration of visual and motor skills holds significance in the development of children. The developmental milestones for VMI commence at three months of age, marked by an infants's ability to visually track an object while lying on their back (supine position)<ref>Scharf RJ, Scharf GJ, Stroustrup A. [https://www.medschool.lsuhsc.edu/pediatrics/docs/Developmental%20Milestones.pdf Developmental milestones.] Pediatrics in Review. 2016; 37(1): 25-38</ref>. It is closely linked to various functional abilities and the capacity to engage in daily tasks<ref>Marr D, Cermak S. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11032620_Predicting_handwriting_performance_of_early_elementary_students_with_the_developmental_test_of_visual_motor_integration Predicting handwriting performance of early elementary students with the developmental test of visual-motor integration]. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 95(1): 661-669</ref>. For instance, visual-motor integration plays a crucial role in the acquisition of handwriting skills<ref>Volman MJM, van Schendel B, Jongmans MJ. [https://atinternetmodules.org/storage/ocali-ims-sites/ocali-ims-atim/documents/Handwriting_difficulties_inprimary_school_underlying_mechanisms.pdf Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms.] American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2006; 60(4): 451-460</ref><ref>Capellini SA, Giaconi C, Germano GD. [https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=73735 Relation between visual motor integration and handwriting in students of elementary school]. Psychology. 2017; 8(2): 258-270</ref>. Approximately 10% to 30% of school-aged children are estimated to encounter difficulties with handwriting<ref>Karlsdottir R, Stefansson T. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11345573_Problems_in_developing_functional_handwriting Problems in developing functional handwriting]. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 94(2): 623-662</ref>.Various research has noted that visual-motor integration is a significant predictor of handwriting performance<ref name=":0" /><ref>Feder KP, Majnemer A. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227869132_Handwriting_development_competency_and_intervention Handwriting development, competency, and intervention]. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2007; 49(4): 312-317</ref>.This is especially in the early grades, as younger students often depend more on visual feedback and motor information to guide their movements when forming and replicating letters<ref>Klein S, Guiltner V, Sollereder P, Cui Y. Relationships between fine-motor, visual-motor, and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed. Physical & Occupation Therapy in Pediatrics. 2011; 31(1): 103-114</ref><ref>Overvelde A, Hulstijn W. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49787840_Handwriting_development_in_grade_2_and_grade_3_primary_school_children_with_normal_at_risk_or_dysgraphic_characteristics Handwriting development in grade 2 and grade 3 primary school children with normal, at risk, or dysgraphic characteristics]. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011; 32(2): 540-548</ref>. Beyond its impact on the development of handwriting, difficulties in visual-motor integration are likely to have repercussions on academic performance in areas such as reading and mathematics<ref>Sortor JM, Kulp MT. [https://lynnhellerstein.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/VMI-and-subtests-and-acad-final.pdf Are the results of the Beery-Buktenica developmental test of visual-motor integration and its subtests related to achievement test scores?] Optometry and Vision Science. 2003; 80(11): 758-763</ref><ref>Oberer N, Gashaj V, Roebers CM. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167945718300034?via%3Dihub Executive functions, visual-motor coordination, physical fitness and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations in typically developing children]. Human Movement Science. 2018; 58: 69-79</ref><ref>Banumathe K, Sharma P, Binu V, Guruprasad V. Relationship between visual motor integration and academic performance in elementary school children. Online Journal of Health and Allied Sciences. 2017; 16(1)</ref>.  Impairments in VMI skills are diverse, leading to negative consequences on both participation and self-concept<ref>Lahav O, Apter A, Ratzon NZ. [https://daneshyari.com/article/preview/10317964.pdf Psychological adjustment and levels of self esteem in children with visual-motor integration difficulties influences the results of a randomized intervention trial]. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2013; 34(1): 56-64</ref><ref>Sanghavi R, Kelkar R. Visual-motor integration and learning disabled children. Indian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2005; 37(2): 33-38</ref>. <br>  


== Clinical Presentation  ==
== Clinical Presentation  ==
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* Children born preterm<ref>Pereira FL, Gaspardo CM. Neonatal pain and developmental outcomes in children born preterm: An updated systematic review. Psychology & Neuroscience. 2024; 17(1):1-15</ref>
* Children born preterm<ref>Pereira FL, Gaspardo CM. Neonatal pain and developmental outcomes in children born preterm: An updated systematic review. Psychology & Neuroscience. 2024; 17(1):1-15</ref>
* Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP): several studies were at a consensus that CP negatively impacts VMI skills<ref name=":1">Alwhaibi RM, Alsakhawi RS, ElKholi SM. Augmented biofeedback training with physical therapy improves visual-motor integration, visual perception, and motor coordination in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomised control trial. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 2020; 40(2): 134-151</ref><ref name=":2">Alwhaibi RM, Alsakhawi, ElKholi SM. Effects of auditovisual feedback on eye-hand coordination in children with cerebral palsy. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2020; 101: 103635</ref><ref name=":3">Cho M, Kim D, Yang Y. Effects of visual perceptual interventions in visual motor integration and activities of daily living performance of children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2008; 27(2): 411-413</ref>
* Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP): several studies were at a consensus that CP negatively impacts VMI skills<ref name=":1">Alwhaibi RM, Alsakhawi RS, ElKholi SM. Augmented biofeedback training with physical therapy improves visual-motor integration, visual perception, and motor coordination in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomised control trial. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 2020; 40(2): 134-151</ref><ref name=":2">Alwhaibi RM, Alsakhawi, ElKholi SM. Effects of auditovisual feedback on eye-hand coordination in children with cerebral palsy. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2020; 101: 103635</ref><ref name=":3">Cho M, Kim D, Yang Y. Effects of visual perceptual interventions in visual motor integration and activities of daily living performance of children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2008; 27(2): 411-413</ref><ref name=":4">Bonifacci P. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8242025_Children_with_low_motor_ability_have_lower_visual-motor_integration_ability_but_unaffected_perceptual_skills Children with low motor ability have lower visual-motor integration ability but unaffected perceptual skills]. Human Movement Science. 2004; 23(2): 157-168</ref>. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations<ref name=":5">Carsone B, Green K, Torrence W, Henry B. [https://www.hindawi.com/journals/oti/2021/1801196/ Systematic Review of Visual Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Disabilities.] Occupational Therapy International. 2021; 9</ref>.
* Children with Brachial Plexus Injury: several studies were at consensus that brachial plexus injury may have a negative impact on VMI skills<ref>van der Holst M, Steenbeek D, Pondaag W, Nelissen RGHH, Vliet Vlieland TPM. Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy in Children Aged 0 to 2.5 Years; Parent-Perceived Family Impact, Quality of Life, and Upper Extremity Functioning. Pediatric Neurology. 2016; 62: 34-42</ref><ref>Bellows D, Bucevska M, Verchere C. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4407124/ Coordination and balance in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury: a preliminary study]. Physiotherapy Canada. 2015; 67(2): 105-112</ref>. The extent of impairment in Brachial Plexus Injury is associated with adverse effects on physical functioning, particularly affecting tasks related to VMI<ref>Lazzeri de Medeiros D, Agistinho NB, Mochizuki L, Siriani de Oliveira A. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7063594/#:~:text=Neonatal%20brachial%20plexus%20palsy%20has,emotional%20impact%20on%20their%20parents. Quality of life and upper limb function of children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy.] Revista Paulista de Pediatria. 2020; 38: 2018304</ref>.
* Children with Brachial Plexus Injury: several studies were at consensus that brachial plexus injury may have a negative impact on VMI skills<ref name=":4" /><ref>van der Holst M, Steenbeek D, Pondaag W, Nelissen RGHH, Vliet Vlieland TPM. Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy in Children Aged 0 to 2.5 Years; Parent-Perceived Family Impact, Quality of Life, and Upper Extremity Functioning. Pediatric Neurology. 2016; 62: 34-42</ref><ref>Bellows D, Bucevska M, Verchere C. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4407124/ Coordination and balance in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury: a preliminary study]. Physiotherapy Canada. 2015; 67(2): 105-112</ref>. The extent of impairment in Brachial Plexus Injury is associated with adverse effects on physical functioning, particularly affecting tasks related to VMI<ref>Lazzeri de Medeiros D, Agistinho NB, Mochizuki L, Siriani de Oliveira A. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7063594/#:~:text=Neonatal%20brachial%20plexus%20palsy%20has,emotional%20impact%20on%20their%20parents. Quality of life and upper limb function of children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy.] Revista Paulista de Pediatria. 2020; 38: 2018304</ref>. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations<ref name=":5" />.
* Children and adults with Autism Disorder (ASD): studies are at consensus that ASD negatively impacts VMI skills<ref>Dowd A, McGinley J, Taffe J, Rinehart N. Do planning and visual integration difficulties underpin motor dysfunction in autism? A kinematic study of young children with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders. 2012; 42(8): 1539-1548</ref><ref>Englund JA, Decker SL, Allen RA, Roberts AM. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275003706_Common_Cognitive_Deficits_in_Children_With_Attention-DeficitHyperactivity_Disorder_and_Autism_Working_Memory_and_Visual-Motor_Integration Common cognitive deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and Autism]. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 2014; 32(2): 95-106</ref><ref>Green RR, Bigler ED, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Travers BG, Cariello A, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander A, Lange N, Lainhart JE. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4969215/ Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder]. Child Neuropsychology. 2016; 22(7): 795-817</ref>.<br>  
* Children and adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): studies are at consensus that ASD negatively impacts VMI skills<ref name=":4" /><ref>Dowd A, McGinley J, Taffe J, Rinehart N. Do planning and visual integration difficulties underpin motor dysfunction in autism? A kinematic study of young children with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders. 2012; 42(8): 1539-1548</ref><ref>Englund JA, Decker SL, Allen RA, Roberts AM. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275003706_Common_Cognitive_Deficits_in_Children_With_Attention-DeficitHyperactivity_Disorder_and_Autism_Working_Memory_and_Visual-Motor_Integration Common cognitive deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and Autism]. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 2014; 32(2): 95-106</ref><ref>Green RR, Bigler ED, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Travers BG, Cariello A, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander A, Lange N, Lainhart JE. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4969215/ Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder]. Child Neuropsychology. 2016; 22(7): 795-817</ref>. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations<ref name=":5" />.
* Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Children with ADHD exhibited significantly lower visual-motor integration<ref>Carames CN, Irwin LN, Kofler MJ. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8727494/ Is there a relation between visual motor integration and academic achievement in school-aged children with and without ADHD?] Child Neuropsychology. 2022; 28(2): 224-243</ref>
 
== Gender ==
In general, gender might influence visual-motor integration skills in children; however, conclusive findings cannot be drawn at this time<ref>Cui Y, Zhy Y, Laukkanen H, Rabin J. [https://core.ac.uk/reader/212798931 Evaluation of visual-motor integration skills in preschool and elementary school-aged Chinese children]. Journal of Behavioral Optometry. 2012; 23(5-6): 123-128</ref><ref>Nicola K, Watter P. Visual-motor integration performance in children with severe specific language impairment. Child: Care, Health and Development. 2016; 42(5): 742-749</ref><ref>Singh CK, Dhanda B, Shanwal P. Gender difference in motor and mental development in children: an impact of stimulating activities. The Antropologist. 2010; 12(2): 153-154</ref>. Notably, one study indicated that females exhibited superior VMI abilities compared to males<ref>Coallier M, Rouleau N, Bara F, Morin M. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275255846_Visual-Motor_Skills_Performance_on_the_Beery-VMI_A_Study_of_Canadian_Kindergarten_Children Visual-motor skills performance on the Beery-VMI: a study of Canadian kindergarten children]. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2014; 2(2): 1-10</ref>, while another study suggested that males were at a higher risk for VMI deficits<ref>Memisevic H, Hadzic S. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236232557_The_Relationship_between_Visual-Motor_Integration_and_Articulation_Disorders_in_Preschool_Children The relationship between visual-motor integration and articulation disorders in preschool children]. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention. 2013; 6(1): 23-30</ref>.
 
== Age ==
All studies unanimously agreed that age had an impact on visual-motor integration scores<ref>Ercan Z, Ahmetoglu E, Aral N. [https://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ies/article/view/9326 Investigating the visual-motor integration skills of 60-72 month children from high and low Socio-Economic status as regard age factor.] International Education Studies. 2011; 4(3): 100-104</ref><ref>Visser M, Nel R, Jansen T, Kinmont L, Terblanché S, van Wyk J. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319503674_Visual_perception_of_five-year-old_English-speaking_children_in_Bloemfontein_using_the_Beery_VMI-6_DTVP-3_and_TVPS-3 Visual perception of five-year-old English-speaking children in Bloemfontein using the Beery VMI-6, DTVP-3 and TVPS-3]. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2017; 47(2): 17-26</ref><ref>Coutinho F, Bosisio M, Brown E, Rishikof S, Skaf E, Zhang X, Perlman C, Kelly S, Freedin E, Dahan-Oliel N. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304814112_Effectiveness_of_iPad_apps_on_visual-motor_skills_among_children_with_special_needs_between_4y0m-7y11m Effectiveness of iPad apps on visual-motor skills among children with special needs between 4y0m-7y11m.] Disability & Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology. 2017; 12(4): 402-410</ref><ref>Fany Y, Wang J, Zhang Y, Qin J. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322164206_The_Relationship_of_Motor_Coordination_Visual_Perception_and_Executive_Function_to_the_Development_of_4-6-Year-Old_Chinese_Preschoolers%27_Visual_Motor_Integration_Skills The Relationship of Motor Coordination, Visual Perception, and Executive Function to the Development of 4-6-Year-Old Chinese Preschoolers' Visual Motor Integration Skills]. BioMed Research International. 2017; 8</ref><ref>Heiz J, Barisnikov K. Visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor coordination in a population with Williams syndrome and in typically developing children. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2016; 60(10): 945-955</ref><ref>Ng M, Chui M, Lin L, Fong A, Chan D. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.hkjot.2015.06.002 Performance of the visual-motor integration of preschool children in Hong Kong.] Hong Kong Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2015; 25(1): 7-14</ref>.


== Diagnostic Procedures  ==
== Diagnostic Procedures  ==
Line 31: Line 38:
== Therapy interventions  ==
== Therapy interventions  ==


* Several studies suggest that occupational therapy intervention improves VMI skills in children with disabilities<ref>Case-Smith J. Effects of occupational therapy services on fine motor and functional performance in preschool children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2000; 54(4): 372-380</ref><ref>Desai AS, Rege PV. Correlation between developmental test of visual motor integration (VMI) and handwriting in cerebral palsy children. Indian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2005; 37(2): 27-32</ref><ref>Tanner K, Schmidt E, Martin K, Bassi M. Interventions within the scope of occupational therapy practice to improve motor performance for children ages 0-5 years: a systematic review. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2020; 74(2): 7402180060p1</ref>
* The utilization of visual perception exercises, whether motor-independent or motor-dependent, can serve as an effective intervention to enhance the visual-motor integration of children with ADHD<ref>Sherejini NA, Molanorouzi K, Vakili S. Comparison of the Effect of Motor Independent/Dependent Visual Perception Practice on Visual-Motor Activity Disorder. Journal of Medical Council. 2023; 41(2): 152-159</ref>
* The utilization of visual perception exercises, whether motor-independent or motor-dependent, can serve as an effective intervention to enhance the visual-motor integration of children with ADHD<ref>Sherejini NA, Molanorouzi K, Vakili S. Comparison of the Effect of Motor Independent/Dependent Visual Perception Practice on Visual-Motor Activity Disorder. Journal of Medical Council. 2023; 41(2): 152-159</ref>
* Engaging in visual perceptual interventions positively impacted the VMI skills and performance in daily activities for children with Cerebral Palsy<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><br>  
* Engaging in visual perceptual interventions positively impacted the VMI skills and performance in daily activities for children with Cerebral Palsy<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><br>  

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Introduction[edit | edit source]

The concept of visual-motor integration (VMI) is complex and influenced by various factors, including visual receptive functions, visual cognitive functions, fine motor ability and the coordination of visual, cognitive and motor processess[1].

Background[edit | edit source]

The integration of visual and motor skills holds significance in the development of children. The developmental milestones for VMI commence at three months of age, marked by an infants's ability to visually track an object while lying on their back (supine position)[2]. It is closely linked to various functional abilities and the capacity to engage in daily tasks[3]. For instance, visual-motor integration plays a crucial role in the acquisition of handwriting skills[4][5]. Approximately 10% to 30% of school-aged children are estimated to encounter difficulties with handwriting[6].Various research has noted that visual-motor integration is a significant predictor of handwriting performance[1][7].This is especially in the early grades, as younger students often depend more on visual feedback and motor information to guide their movements when forming and replicating letters[8][9]. Beyond its impact on the development of handwriting, difficulties in visual-motor integration are likely to have repercussions on academic performance in areas such as reading and mathematics[10][11][12]. Impairments in VMI skills are diverse, leading to negative consequences on both participation and self-concept[13][14].

Clinical Presentation[edit | edit source]

There are different diagnosis that may influence the visual-motor integration:

  • Children born preterm[15]
  • Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP): several studies were at a consensus that CP negatively impacts VMI skills[16][17][18][19]. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations[20].
  • Children with Brachial Plexus Injury: several studies were at consensus that brachial plexus injury may have a negative impact on VMI skills[19][21][22]. The extent of impairment in Brachial Plexus Injury is associated with adverse effects on physical functioning, particularly affecting tasks related to VMI[23]. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations[20].
  • Children and adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): studies are at consensus that ASD negatively impacts VMI skills[19][24][25][26]. There is an increased risk for having VMI deficits due to dyspraxia and motor coordination limitations[20].
  • Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Children with ADHD exhibited significantly lower visual-motor integration[27]

Gender[edit | edit source]

In general, gender might influence visual-motor integration skills in children; however, conclusive findings cannot be drawn at this time[28][29][30]. Notably, one study indicated that females exhibited superior VMI abilities compared to males[31], while another study suggested that males were at a higher risk for VMI deficits[32].

Age[edit | edit source]

All studies unanimously agreed that age had an impact on visual-motor integration scores[33][34][35][36][37][38].

Diagnostic Procedures[edit | edit source]

add text here relating to diagnostic tests for the condition

Diagnostic instruments[edit | edit source]

add links to outcome measures here (see Outcome Measures Database)

Therapy interventions[edit | edit source]

  • Several studies suggest that occupational therapy intervention improves VMI skills in children with disabilities[39][40][41]
  • The utilization of visual perception exercises, whether motor-independent or motor-dependent, can serve as an effective intervention to enhance the visual-motor integration of children with ADHD[42]
  • Engaging in visual perceptual interventions positively impacted the VMI skills and performance in daily activities for children with Cerebral Palsy[16][17][18]

Differential Diagnosis
[edit | edit source]

add text here relating to the differential diagnosis of this condition

Resources
[edit | edit source]

add appropriate resources here

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Dankert HL, Davies PL, Gavin WJ. Occupational therapy effects on visual motor skills in preschool children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2003; 57(5): 542-549
  2. ↑ Scharf RJ, Scharf GJ, Stroustrup A. Developmental milestones. Pediatrics in Review. 2016; 37(1): 25-38
  3. ↑ Marr D, Cermak S. Predicting handwriting performance of early elementary students with the developmental test of visual-motor integration. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 95(1): 661-669
  4. ↑ Volman MJM, van Schendel B, Jongmans MJ. Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2006; 60(4): 451-460
  5. ↑ Capellini SA, Giaconi C, Germano GD. Relation between visual motor integration and handwriting in students of elementary school. Psychology. 2017; 8(2): 258-270
  6. ↑ Karlsdottir R, Stefansson T. Problems in developing functional handwriting. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2002; 94(2): 623-662
  7. ↑ Feder KP, Majnemer A. Handwriting development, competency, and intervention. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2007; 49(4): 312-317
  8. ↑ Klein S, Guiltner V, Sollereder P, Cui Y. Relationships between fine-motor, visual-motor, and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed. Physical & Occupation Therapy in Pediatrics. 2011; 31(1): 103-114
  9. ↑ Overvelde A, Hulstijn W. Handwriting development in grade 2 and grade 3 primary school children with normal, at risk, or dysgraphic characteristics. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011; 32(2): 540-548
  10. ↑ Sortor JM, Kulp MT. Are the results of the Beery-Buktenica developmental test of visual-motor integration and its subtests related to achievement test scores? Optometry and Vision Science. 2003; 80(11): 758-763
  11. ↑ Oberer N, Gashaj V, Roebers CM. Executive functions, visual-motor coordination, physical fitness and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations in typically developing children. Human Movement Science. 2018; 58: 69-79
  12. ↑ Banumathe K, Sharma P, Binu V, Guruprasad V. Relationship between visual motor integration and academic performance in elementary school children. Online Journal of Health and Allied Sciences. 2017; 16(1)
  13. ↑ Lahav O, Apter A, Ratzon NZ. Psychological adjustment and levels of self esteem in children with visual-motor integration difficulties influences the results of a randomized intervention trial. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2013; 34(1): 56-64
  14. ↑ Sanghavi R, Kelkar R. Visual-motor integration and learning disabled children. Indian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2005; 37(2): 33-38
  15. ↑ Pereira FL, Gaspardo CM. Neonatal pain and developmental outcomes in children born preterm: An updated systematic review. Psychology & Neuroscience. 2024; 17(1):1-15
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Alwhaibi RM, Alsakhawi RS, ElKholi SM. Augmented biofeedback training with physical therapy improves visual-motor integration, visual perception, and motor coordination in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomised control trial. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 2020; 40(2): 134-151
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Alwhaibi RM, Alsakhawi, ElKholi SM. Effects of auditovisual feedback on eye-hand coordination in children with cerebral palsy. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2020; 101: 103635
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Cho M, Kim D, Yang Y. Effects of visual perceptual interventions in visual motor integration and activities of daily living performance of children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2008; 27(2): 411-413
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Bonifacci P. Children with low motor ability have lower visual-motor integration ability but unaffected perceptual skills. Human Movement Science. 2004; 23(2): 157-168
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Carsone B, Green K, Torrence W, Henry B. Systematic Review of Visual Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Disabilities. Occupational Therapy International. 2021; 9
  21. ↑ van der Holst M, Steenbeek D, Pondaag W, Nelissen RGHH, Vliet Vlieland TPM. Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy in Children Aged 0 to 2.5 Years; Parent-Perceived Family Impact, Quality of Life, and Upper Extremity Functioning. Pediatric Neurology. 2016; 62: 34-42
  22. ↑ Bellows D, Bucevska M, Verchere C. Coordination and balance in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury: a preliminary study. Physiotherapy Canada. 2015; 67(2): 105-112
  23. ↑ Lazzeri de Medeiros D, Agistinho NB, Mochizuki L, Siriani de Oliveira A. Quality of life and upper limb function of children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy. Revista Paulista de Pediatria. 2020; 38: 2018304
  24. ↑ Dowd A, McGinley J, Taffe J, Rinehart N. Do planning and visual integration difficulties underpin motor dysfunction in autism? A kinematic study of young children with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders. 2012; 42(8): 1539-1548
  25. ↑ Englund JA, Decker SL, Allen RA, Roberts AM. Common cognitive deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and Autism. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 2014; 32(2): 95-106
  26. ↑ Green RR, Bigler ED, Froehlich A, Prigge MBD, Travers BG, Cariello A, Anderson JS, Zielinski BA, Alexander A, Lange N, Lainhart JE. Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder. Child Neuropsychology. 2016; 22(7): 795-817
  27. ↑ Carames CN, Irwin LN, Kofler MJ. Is there a relation between visual motor integration and academic achievement in school-aged children with and without ADHD? Child Neuropsychology. 2022; 28(2): 224-243
  28. ↑ Cui Y, Zhy Y, Laukkanen H, Rabin J. Evaluation of visual-motor integration skills in preschool and elementary school-aged Chinese children. Journal of Behavioral Optometry. 2012; 23(5-6): 123-128
  29. ↑ Nicola K, Watter P. Visual-motor integration performance in children with severe specific language impairment. Child: Care, Health and Development. 2016; 42(5): 742-749
  30. ↑ Singh CK, Dhanda B, Shanwal P. Gender difference in motor and mental development in children: an impact of stimulating activities. The Antropologist. 2010; 12(2): 153-154
  31. ↑ Coallier M, Rouleau N, Bara F, Morin M. Visual-motor skills performance on the Beery-VMI: a study of Canadian kindergarten children. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2014; 2(2): 1-10
  32. ↑ Memisevic H, Hadzic S. The relationship between visual-motor integration and articulation disorders in preschool children. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention. 2013; 6(1): 23-30
  33. ↑ Ercan Z, Ahmetoglu E, Aral N. Investigating the visual-motor integration skills of 60-72 month children from high and low Socio-Economic status as regard age factor. International Education Studies. 2011; 4(3): 100-104
  34. ↑ Visser M, Nel R, Jansen T, Kinmont L, Terblanché S, van Wyk J. Visual perception of five-year-old English-speaking children in Bloemfontein using the Beery VMI-6, DTVP-3 and TVPS-3. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2017; 47(2): 17-26
  35. ↑ Coutinho F, Bosisio M, Brown E, Rishikof S, Skaf E, Zhang X, Perlman C, Kelly S, Freedin E, Dahan-Oliel N. Effectiveness of iPad apps on visual-motor skills among children with special needs between 4y0m-7y11m. Disability & Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology. 2017; 12(4): 402-410
  36. ↑ Fany Y, Wang J, Zhang Y, Qin J. The Relationship of Motor Coordination, Visual Perception, and Executive Function to the Development of 4-6-Year-Old Chinese Preschoolers' Visual Motor Integration Skills. BioMed Research International. 2017; 8
  37. ↑ Heiz J, Barisnikov K. Visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor coordination in a population with Williams syndrome and in typically developing children. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2016; 60(10): 945-955
  38. ↑ Ng M, Chui M, Lin L, Fong A, Chan D. Performance of the visual-motor integration of preschool children in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2015; 25(1): 7-14
  39. ↑ Case-Smith J. Effects of occupational therapy services on fine motor and functional performance in preschool children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2000; 54(4): 372-380
  40. ↑ Desai AS, Rege PV. Correlation between developmental test of visual motor integration (VMI) and handwriting in cerebral palsy children. Indian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2005; 37(2): 27-32
  41. ↑ Tanner K, Schmidt E, Martin K, Bassi M. Interventions within the scope of occupational therapy practice to improve motor performance for children ages 0-5 years: a systematic review. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2020; 74(2): 7402180060p1
  42. ↑ Sherejini NA, Molanorouzi K, Vakili S. Comparison of the Effect of Motor Independent/Dependent Visual Perception Practice on Visual-Motor Activity Disorder. Journal of Medical Council. 2023; 41(2): 152-159
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