Medial Epicondyle Tendinopathy: Difference between revisions
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== Examination == | == Examination == | ||
*Tenderness to palpation (usually over m. pronator teres and m. flexor carpi radialis) | |||
*Local swelling and warmth | |||
*Medial epicondylitis test (level of evidence 1A) <ref name="shultz">Shultz SJ. Examination of musculoskeletal injuries.. USA, Human Kinetics, p295. 2000.</ref> | |||
*It includes a passive and an active test to determine medial epicondylitis. In severe cases of epicondylitis, the patient will complain of pain when he simply shakes hands or pulls an open door. For the active resistance test, the patient should resist wrist flexion. This must be carried out with elbow extended while fully supinating the forearm. For the passive test, the therapist extends the wrist with the elbow extended. | |||
*Range of motion in the beginning of the disease can be full, but later on there is a possibility of a decreased range of motion <ref name="ciccotti mc">Ciccotti MC. Diagnosis and treatment of medial epicondylitis of the elbow. Clin Sports Med. 2004. (level of evidence 4)</ref> | |||
*An evaluation of the entire upper extremity kinetic chain can be needed. A particular focus goes to the shoulder and the scapular strength, motion and stabilization. Overuse injuries in the elbow often occur with shoulder or scapular dysfunction <ref name="todd">Todd S. Ellenbecker RNPR. Current Concepts in Examination and Treatment of Elbow Tendon Injury. Sports Health; 5(2): 186–194. 2013 March. (level of evidence 4)</ref> (level of evidence 4) | |||
<br><br> | |||
== Medical Management <br> == | == Medical Management <br> == |
Revision as of 19:13, 23 September 2015
Original Editors - Anouk Toye
Top Contributors - Sanne Delporte, Anouk Toye, Darrell Blommaert, Admin, Alynn De Maeyer, Shaimaa Eldib, Rachael Lowe, Lauren Lopez, Fasuba Ayobami, Kim Jackson, 127.0.0.1, Kai A. Sigel and Naomi O'Reilly
Search Strategy[edit | edit source]
I would recommend consulting PubMed. The keywords I used to obtain several references were:
- ‘medial epicondylitis’ (108 results – 12 free full texts)
- ‘medial epicondylitis AND physical therapy’ (11 results – 1 free full text)
- ’medial epicondylitis AND diagnosis’ (81 results - 7 free full texts)
- ’medial epicondylitis AND treatment’ (75 results – 7 free full texts),
- ‘Golfer’s elbow’ (19 results – 2 free full text)
- ‘Golfer’s elbow test AND physical therapy’ (3 results)
- ‘Golfer’s elbow AND diagnosis’ (12 results – 2 free full texts)
- ‘Golfer’s elbow AND treatment’ (15 results – 1 free full text).
It’s also very helpful to check the references of each usable article.
Other sites to consult are Web of knowledge, Sholar.google.com, Science Direct, Cochrane, Pedro and Books.google.com.
Definition/Description[edit | edit source]
Medial epicondylitis or ‘golfer’s elbow’ is mostly a tendinous overload injury leading to microtearing. Thereby tendon degeneration appears instead of repair. [1] The most sensitive region is located near the origin of the wrist flexors on the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Sometimes the patient also experiences pain on the ulnar side of the forearm, the wrist and occasionally in the fingers.
Clinically Relevant Anatomy[edit | edit source]
Osteology: Medial epicondyle of the Humerus
Musculature: Wrist Flexor Group
Moving radially to ulnarly the muscles are:[2]
Muscle | Origin | Insertion | Arteria | Nerve | Function |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M. pronator teres |
|
middle of the facies lateralis and dorsalis radii | A. recurrens ulnaris | N. medianus |
|
M. flexor carpi radialis | fascia antebrachii of the epicondylus medialis humeri | base of the ossis metacarpalis 2 | A. radialis | N. medianus |
|
M. palmaris longus | fascia antebrachii of the epicondylus medialis humeri | aponeurosis palmaris | A. recurrens ulnaris | N. medianus |
|
M. flexor digitorum superficialis |
|
palmar side of the phalanges mediales of the 2nd to 5th finger |
A. ulnaris
|
N. medianus |
|
M. flexor carpi ulnaris |
|
|
A. recurrens ulnaris
|
N. ulnaris |
|
All these muscles have the same origin: the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Most frequently the pathology occurs in the musculotendinous origin of the flexor carpi radialis and pronator teres. But large diffuse tears can also occur in the palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor carpi ulnaris.[1][3]
Epidemiology /Etiology[edit | edit source]
Medial epicondylitis has a lower incidence than lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow), with the former containing only 9 to 20% of all epicondylitis diagnoses. [4] The ‘golfer’s elbow’ and ‘pitcher’s elbow’ [1] are synonyms. The pathology occurs in baseball pitchers as a result of high-energy valgus forces created by the overhead throw. It has also been reported with tennis, bowling, archery, weightlifting, javelin throwing, racquetball and american football. [4] However 90 to 95% of all cases do not involve sportsmen [5] [6]. Because chronic repetitive concentric or eccentric contractile loading of the wrist flexors and pronator are the most common etiology, occupations such as carpentry, plumbing and meat cutting have also been implicated. The pathology may also be produced by sudden violence to these tendons in a single traumatic event. [4] In many cases trauma at work had been identified as the cause of the symptoms [5].
More specific occupational physical factors associated with medial epicondylitis are forceful activities among men and with repetitive movements of the arm among women.
Current smokers and former smokers are also associated with medial epicondylitis, so do patients who suffer from diabetes type 2 [5].
Characteristics/Clinical Presentation[edit | edit source]
Although epicondylitis means there is an inflammation, there is some controversy with this pathology. The pathologic process does not involve bony inflammation. [7] Histologically it has been shown that medial epicondylitis is the result of microtearing in the tendon that isn’t fully relapsed (=To fall or slide back into a former state). Some physical therapists prefer the term tendonosis instead of epicondylitis. [8] Another terminology for this condition is epicondylalgia, referring to pain rather than inflammation. [7]
Most of the time, golfer's elbow is not caused by inflammation. Rather, it is a problem within the cells of the tendon. In tendonosis, wear and tear is thought to lead to tissue degeneration. A degenerated tendon usually has an abnormal arrangement of collagen fibers and fiber separation by increased mucoid ground substance. There can also be an increased prominence of cells and vascular spaces and focal necrosis or calcification. [9] When this happens, the collagen loses its strength. It becomes fragile and can break or be easily injured. Each time the collagen breaks down, the body responds by forming scar tissue in the tendon. Eventually, the tendon becomes thickened from extra scar tissue. [10] The tendon changes from a white, glistening and firm surface to a dull-apearing, slightly brown and soft surface. [9]
As medial epicondylitis is a tendonosis of the flexor group tendons attached to the medial epicondyle of the humerus, the most sensitive region will be located near the origin of the wrist flexor group.
The patient usually complains about pain of the elbow distal to the medial epicondyle of the humerus with radiation up and down the arm, most common on the ulnar side of the forearm, the wrist and occasionally in the fingers [11] .
Local tenderness over the medial epicondyle and the conjoined tendon of the flexor group, without evidence of swelling or erythema, are also characteristics that can occur. Other symptoms are stiffness of the elbow, weakness in the hand and the wrist and a numb or tingling feeling in the fingers (mostly ring and little finger). [12]
The pain is evoked by resisted flexion of the wrist and by pronation. The pain is usually accompanied by a weakness of hand grip. Pain can begin suddenly or can develop gradually over time. [11]
Differential Diagnosis[edit | edit source]
When diagnosing a medial epicondylitis, the therapist always has to consider other pathologies such as illustrated in the table below [1] [6] [8] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]:
Pathology | Differential examination |
---|---|
C6 and C7 radiculopathy | Neurological examination of muscle strength, sensory loss and reflexes |
A compression neuropathy of the ulnar and the median nerve |
|
Ulnar/medial collateral ligament instability | valgus stress test |
Ulnar neuritis (Cubital Tunnel Syndrome II) |
|
Ulnar/medial collateral ligament sprain | Moving valgus stress test |
Adhesive Capsulitis |
|
Osteoarthritis |
|
Flexor-pronator strain |
|
Anterior interosseous nerve entrapment | Upper Limb Tension Test 1 |
Arthrofibrosis |
|
Loose bodies |
|
Medial epicondyle avulsion | Magnetic resonance imaging |
Osteophytes | Computerized Tomography |
Synovitis | Color or Power Doppler Ultrasound |
Tardy ulnar nerve palsy |
|
Valgus extension overload |
|
Lateral epicondylitis |
|
Diagnostic Procedures[edit | edit source]
As epicondylitis is essentially a musculotendinous condition, diagnosis is essentially clinical.
Radiographs are typically negative unless the chronicity of the condition had allowed periostitis to develop on the affected epicondyle [6].
The diagnosis of medial epicondylitis is based on local pain at the elbow, tenderness and pain with palpation distal and anterior of the medial epicondyle. An increase in pain at the medial epicondyle with resisted isometric flexion, repetitive flexion and pronation of the wrist can also be examined.[1] [5] [18]
In particular the Golfer’s Elbow Test, an orthopedic test, is described as being helpful to diagnose medial epicondylitis [6].
Outcome Measures[edit | edit source]
- DASH (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand) [19] is a questionnaire with 30 items to rate the ability, of a person with an upper extremity disorder, to perform daily life activities. The short version of this test is called the QuickDash questionnaire, with only 11 items.
- Maximal grip strength and force sense can be measured with a hand dynamometer. [20]
- The strain index evaluates the risk of developing a distal upper extremity disorder. [21]
- The Upper Extremity Functional Index (UEFI) is an 8-item questionnaire used to determine the impact of upper extremity disorders on function. [22]
Examination[edit | edit source]
- Tenderness to palpation (usually over m. pronator teres and m. flexor carpi radialis)
- Local swelling and warmth
- Medial epicondylitis test (level of evidence 1A) [23]
- It includes a passive and an active test to determine medial epicondylitis. In severe cases of epicondylitis, the patient will complain of pain when he simply shakes hands or pulls an open door. For the active resistance test, the patient should resist wrist flexion. This must be carried out with elbow extended while fully supinating the forearm. For the passive test, the therapist extends the wrist with the elbow extended.
- Range of motion in the beginning of the disease can be full, but later on there is a possibility of a decreased range of motion [24]
- An evaluation of the entire upper extremity kinetic chain can be needed. A particular focus goes to the shoulder and the scapular strength, motion and stabilization. Overuse injuries in the elbow often occur with shoulder or scapular dysfunction [25] (level of evidence 4)
Medical Management
[edit | edit source]
Surgical treatment of medial epicondylitis
When conservative management fails and there is persistent pain after 6 to 12 months and all other pathologies are considered, surgical treatment must be considered.
Surgery for failure of conservative treatment relieves pain, restored strength and allows a return to the previous level of daily living and sports activity (level of quality C)[26].
Mini-open muscle resection procedure under local anesthesia
For medial epicondylitis the degenerative tissue at the origine of the flexor carpi radialis brevis is removed during a mini-open muscle resection procedure.
This procedure produces low levels of postoperative pain, a short hospital stay and rehabilitation period and early return to daily activities.
The limitations of and open flexor carpi radialis brevis release include late return to work and sporting activities due to a prolongation of the postoperative recovery time, a risk of posterolateral instability, and the formation of nueroma after surgery (level of quality B)[27].
Fascial elevation and tendon origin resection (FETOR)
Fascial elevation and tendon origin resection facilitates the complete visualization and resection of the CFPO (Chronic Flexor Palmar Origin) with limited soft tissue dissection.
FETOR decreases the average pain, pain at rest, and pain during hard work or heavy lifting. There is also an improvement of the mean pain-free grip strength. (level of evidence 4)[28]
Steroïd injections
The indication for injection therapy for epicondylitis is usually chronic pain and disability not relieved by more conservative means, or severe acute pain with functional impairment that calls for a more rapid intervention.
These injections seem to have a short term effect ( 2-6 weeks) and effective in providing early symptom relief (level of quality A1)[29].
Initial extracorporeal shock wave therapy is effective for the patients newly diagnosed as medial epicondylitis although the effectiveness on completion of the treatments were inferior than local steroid injection. Therefore, extracorporeal shock wave therapy can be another option when local steroid injection is contraindicated. (level of evidence 1B) [30]
Autologous blood injection
The combined treatment of dry needling and ultrasound guided autologous blood injection is discribed as a effective way to treat patients with refractory lateral and medial epicondylitis. The hypothesis of the mechanism is that the transforming growth factor-β and basic fibroblast growth factor carried in the blood act as humoral mediators to induce the healing cascade (level of quality C)[31].
Physical Therapy Management
[edit | edit source]
Nonsurgical treatment
The main goal of the conservative treatment is to obtain pain relieve and an inflammation reduce. These two things will help to achieve a proper rehabilitation and later a return to activities.
Nonsurgical treatment can be divided into three phases.
- Phase 1: The patient immediately has to stop the offending activities. It’s not recommended to stop all activities or sports since that can cause atrophy of the muscles.
The therapy starts with ‘PRICEMM’, which stands for ‘prevention/protection, rest, ice, compression, elevation, modalities and medication'. The affected elbow should be iced several times a day for about a quarter. This improves the local vasoconstrictive and analgesic effects. As for medication the patient can take nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication (NSAID).
If the patient’s condition doesn’t improve, a period of night splinting is adequate. This is usually accompanied with a local corticosteroid injection around the origin of the wrist flexor group. Some examples of a physical therapy modality are ultrasound and high-voltage galvanic stimulation (but there’s not yet a study that notes their efficacy).
Counterforce bracing is recommended for athletes with symptoms of medial epicondylitis. It can also aid when the patient is returning to sport.
- Phase 2: As soon as we see an improvement of phase 1, a well guided rehabilitation can be started. The first goal of the second phase is to establish full, painless, wrist and elbow range of motion. This is soon followed by stretching and progressive isometric exercises. These exercises first should be done with a flexed elbow to minimize the pain. Although not yet conclusive, is the belief that strength training decreases symptoms in tendinosis. The short-term analgesic effect of manipulation techniques may allow more vigorous stretching and strengthening exercises resulting in a better and faster recovery process of the affected tendon in Medial epicondylitis. (A1) [32]As soon as the patient has made some progress the flexion of the elbow can be decreased. As the flexibility and the strength of the elbow area return, concentric and eccentric resistive exercises are added to the rehabilitation program. The final part of this phase is a simulation of sport or occupation of the patient.
- Phase 3: When the patient is able to return to his sport it is necessary to take a look at his equipment and/or technique. These precautions ought to be taken to allow a safe return to activities (level of quality D)[33].
Postoperative management
7 to 10 days after the operation, the splint and skin sutures are removed. At this point the physical therapy can start. The beginning of the treatment is characterized by gentle passive and active hand, wrist and elbow exercises. 3 to 4 weeks later gentle isometrics can be done and at 6 weeks the patient can start with more resistive exercises. At last a progressive strengthening program has to be followed. In normal cases the patient can return to activities 3 to 6 months after the operation (level of quality D)[33].
Prevention [edit | edit source]
A healthy elbow requires a healthy shoulder and wrist joint and strong muscles around the scapula (shoulder blades) and arms to decrease the load on the smaller forearm muscles.
To prevent overuse and strain in the elbow and forearm:
-Take frequent breaks from activities that require extensive hand/wrist motions.
-Reduce or avoid lifting objects with the arm extended.
-Reduce repetitive gripping and grasping with the hand and wrist. Decrease the overall tension of gripping.
-Avoid the extremes of bending and full extension.
-Work or weight-train with the elbow in a partially bent position. Use wrist supports when weight-training.
-When using tools, increase the gripping surface by wearing gloves or adding padding. Use a hammer with extra padding to reduce tension and impact. Hold heavy tools with two hands.
-Use a two-handed backhand in tennis. When hitting a tennis stroke, use your entire lower body, hip, pelvis, and back, and use less of your elbow. Using the proper technique in tennis can help reduce symptoms. Reevaluate the size of your grip, string tension, type of string, new strokes, and new grips for new strokes, which can all contribute to problems.
-Some suggest lowering string tension, finding the heaviest racket that does not affect your swing speed, finding the largest grip that is comfortable, and using softer strings.
-Apply grip tape or an oversized grip on golf clubs. (level of evidence A1)[34]
Key Research[edit | edit source]
Hoogvliet, P. ,Does effectiveness of exercise therapy and mobilisation techniques offer guidance for the treatment of lateral and medial epicondylitis? A systematic review, (Ann Rehabil Med. 2012 Oct).., geraadpleegd op 2 mei 2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23709519 level of evidence 1A
Resources
[edit | edit source]
Sandra J. Shultz, Peggy A. Houglum, David H. Perrin. Examination of musculoskeletal injuries. USA, Human Kinetics, 2000, p295.level of evidence 1A
Clinical Bottom Line[edit | edit source]
Epicondylitis medialis is a tendinosis of the common tendon insertion from the flexors of the wrist. Most of the time it’s caused by making too much use of the flexors of the wrist, but in some cases it can also emerge spontaneously. Some examples of activities that may hold many risks are playing tennis, cleaning, painting, washing windows,…
The treatment of epicondylitis medialis exists first of all of enough rest together with local application of ice and in some cases the giving of anti-inflammatory medication and stretching. In case of a serious form of epicondylitis medialis, some injections of cortisone can be given (maximum three injections). If all these treatments won’t help, an operation will be inevitable.
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Lee AT. The Prevalence of Medial Epicondylitis Among Patients With C6 and C7 Radiculopathy. Orthopaedic surgery. 2010 august. (level of evidence 4)
- ↑ R. Putz RP. Sobotta atlas of human anatomy. 3rd ed.; 2006.
- ↑ The Mcgraw-Hill Companies, geraadpleegd op 4 mei, http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~uzwiak/AnatPhys/APFallLect15_files/image023.jpg
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Ciccotti MG. Medial epicondylitis. Techniques in Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery, 7(4):190–196. 2003. (level of evidence 3A)
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Shiri R. et al. Prevalence and determinants of the lateral and medial epicondylitis: a population study. American journal of epidemiology, vol. 164 n° 11, pag 1065 – 1074. 2006 September. (level of evidence 2B)
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Polkinghorn BS. A novel method for assessing elbow pain resulting from epicondylitis. Journal of chiropractic medicine, vol. 1 n° 3, pag. 117 – 121. 2002. (level of evidence 2A)
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Schipper ON et al. Nirschl Surgical Technique for Concomitant Lateral and Medial Elbow Tendinosis: A Retrospective Review of 53 Elbows With a Mean Follow-up of 11.7 Years. The American Journal of Sports Medicine 39: 972. 2011. (level of evidence 4)
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Birrer RB. Sports medicine for the primary care physician. 3rd ed. Florida: CRC Press LLC; 2004.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 KM K. Overuse tendinosis, not tendinitis—Part 1: A new paradigm for a difficult clinical problem. Physician Sportsmed. 2000. (level of evidence 3A)
- ↑ methodistorthopedics. [Online]. Available from: http://www.methodistorthopedics.com/medial-epicondylitis-golfers-elbow. (level of evidence 5)
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 L M. Medial epicondylitis. vol. 91 n° 1, pag.23. 1959 July.
- ↑ Mayo clinic, symptoms. [Online]. [cited 2015 april. Available from: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/golfers-elbow/basics/symptoms/con-20027964
- ↑ Frontera WR. Essentials of physical medicine and rehabilitation; musculoskeletal disorders, pain, and rehabilitation. 2nd ed.: Saunders; 2008.
- ↑ Dlabach JA. et al. LATERAL AND MEDIAL EPICONDYLITIS IN THE OVERHEAD ATHLETE. Operative Techniques in Orthopaedics, Vol 11, N° 1, pp 46-54. 2001 January. (level of evidence 3A)
- ↑ Phillips BB. et al. Arthroscopic Treatment of Arthrofibrosis of the Elbow Joint. Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic and Related Surgery, Vol 14, No 1 : pp 38–44. 1998 January-February. (level of evidence 4)
- ↑ Konin GP. et al. US of the Elbow: Indications, Technique, Normal Anatomy, and Pathologic Conditions. RadioGraphics ; 33:E125–E147. 2013. (level of evidence 3A)
- ↑ Miller MD et al. Presentation, Imaging and Treatment of Common Musculoskeletal Conditions: MRI-ARTHROSCOPY CORRELATION chapter 35, p144-p145; 2012. (level of evidence 5)
- ↑ Cardone DA. Diagnostic and therapeutic injection of the elbow region. American family physician, vol. 66 n° 11, pag. 2097 – 2100. 2002 Decembre. (level of evidence 1A)
- ↑ Shahid M. et al. Operative treatment improves patient function in recalcitrant medial epicondylitis. Ann R Coll Surg Engl ; 95: 486–488. 2013. (level of evidence 4)
- ↑ Chang HY et al. The Effectiveness of Kinesio Taping for Athletes with Medial Elbow Epicondylar Tendinopathy. Int J Sports Med ; 34:1003–1006. 2013. (level of evidence 3B)
- ↑ Fan JZ et al. Predicting Work-Related Incidence of Lateral and Medial Epicondylitis Using the Strain Index. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE, 57:1319–1330. 2014. (level of evidence 2B)
- ↑ Pransky G. et.al Measuring Functional Outcomes in Work-Related Upper Extremity Disorders: Development and Validation of the Upper Extremity Function Scale. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine: Volume 39 - Issue 12 - pp 1195-1. 1997 December. (level of evidence 2B)
- ↑ Shultz SJ. Examination of musculoskeletal injuries.. USA, Human Kinetics, p295. 2000.
- ↑ Ciccotti MC. Diagnosis and treatment of medial epicondylitis of the elbow. Clin Sports Med. 2004. (level of evidence 4)
- ↑ Todd S. Ellenbecker RNPR. Current Concepts in Examination and Treatment of Elbow Tendon Injury. Sports Health; 5(2): 186–194. 2013 March. (level of evidence 4)
- ↑ VANGSNESS C.T., JOBE F.W., Surgical treatment of medial epicondylitis, The journal of bone and joint surgery, May 1991, vol. 73B n° 3, pag. 409 – 411, level of quality C
- ↑ CHO B.K. et al, Mini-open muscle resection procedure under local anesthesia for lateral and medial epicondylitis, Clinics in orthopedic surgery, 2009, vol. 1 n° 3, pag. 123 – 127, level of quality B
- ↑ Kwon, BC. (2014).The Fascial Elevation and Tendon Origin Resection Technique for the Treatment of Chronic Recalcitrant Medial Epicondylitis., geraadpleegd op 2 mei 2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24758782 level of evidence 4
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
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- ↑ Lee SS. Et al, Effectiveness of initial extracorporeal shock wave therapy on the newly diagnosed lateral or medial epicondylitis, Ann Rehabil Med, 2012 Oct., geraadpleegd op 2 mei 2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23185733 level of evidence 1B
- ↑ SURESH S.P.S., ALI K.E., JONES H., CONNELL D.A., Medial epicondylitis: is ultrasound guided autologous blood injection an effective treatment?, biomedical journal of sports medicine, September 2006, pag. 935 – 939, level of quality C
- ↑ Hoogvliet, P. (2013). Does effectiveness of exercise therapy and mobilisation techniques offer guidance for the treatment of lateral and medial epicondylitis? A systematic review., (Ann Rehabil Med. 2012 Oct).., geraadpleegd op 2 mei 2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23709519 level of evidence 1A
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Michael C. Ciccotti , MA, RA, Michael A. Schwartz, MD, Michael G. Ciccotti, MD. Diagnosis and treatment of medial epicondylitis of the elbow. Clin Sports Med 23 (2004) 693-705fckLRQuality: D4
- ↑ Jayanthi, N. (2013). http://www.uptodate.com/contents/elbow-tendinopathy-tennis-and-golf-elbow-beyond-the-basics?view=print, geraadpleegd op 2 mei 2014. Level of evidence 1A
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