How to Focus for Learning

Intro

f students' concentration levels are lacking, this is because the learningplace should be quiet, not disturbed by stimuli from around. That is, the atmosphere in question is a conducive learning atmosphere. Conducive means really supporting the continuityof the learning process. The atmosphere during the learning process can affect the efficiency of learning time.Success in learning concentration largely depends on the individual himself. Even in the most appropriate place, sometimes the individual's mind drifts to other things outside of what he is dealing with. Concentration can be influenced by several factors including physical factors, social factors, psychological factors. One of the factors that are proven to affect concentration include environmental factors. The atmosphere of the learning environment is an incentive for students to concentrate more in learning. With a conducive environment, concentration in learning will increase and can encourage students to understand the teaching materials provided by educators(Tambunan et al., 2020).Gultekin (2018)found that in America alone 64.4% of students do not have a conducive learning environment. In addition, in Africa, 48% of students do not get an adequate school environment for learning, this is due to various reasons, including the lack of supporting facilities and infrastructure for the teaching and learning process in the region.Y. Anggraini and Patmanthara (2017)said that in Indonesia itself, more precisely in the city of Malang, it was found that 54.1% of the learning environment greatly influenced learning activities. This proves that the environment is something that exists in the natural environment that has a certain influence on individuals. This means that an effective learning condition is a condition that is truly conducive and supports the smoothness and continuity of the teaching and learning process.The learning environment is one of the learning resources that affect student learning outcomes and in the learning process. the learning environment includes the condition of school buildings, classrooms, which have an influence on learning activities, teacher-student relationships must be well established, student facilities are adequate, adequate facilities and infrastructure can support learning activities. Based on the results of interviews with 8 STIKes Santa Elisabeth Medan students, they said that their concentration while studying was influenced by the surrounding environment.They feel they can't concentrate because of several things in the environment such as friends on the side, sitting position that is too back, noise, noisy and noisy classes because many are chatting when the lecturer explains, too many students in one class and class facilities. which is sometimes inadequate. They feel uncomfortable with such environmental conditions because it interferes with their concentration while studying so that what is conveyed by the lecturer cannot be understood properly. The results of observations made by researchers are also in accordance with the results of interviews. Many students were noisy and talking when 6 lecturers explained. They don't pay attention to what is being explained, they are more focused on other things.

Random learning

he fact that attention can be focused on a certain point/work for a long time involves a high level of cognitive efforts (Solso, MacLin & MacLin, 2011). In this process, students should be able to prevent other stimulants that attract their attention but do not contribute to the learning process and make efforts to keep themselves in the activity. Performing the task of selectivity for a long time and concentration on the desired stimuli of attention depend on continuous stimulation (Cüceloğlu, 1994). When there is no change in the nature and severity of these arousals, since the individual got used to the stimulant, s/he starts not to react to the stimuli and the learning environment becomes meaningless (Uluğ, 1991). In other words, even if all factors are positive, learning does not occur when students cWhen knowledge is learned with greater attention, it becomes more resistant to deterioration and forgetting (Prakash, 2015). Attention is necessary to see the center of a problem, to understand the problem and to generate ideas. One of the characteristics of people who can think creatively and critically is their high ability to focus on stimuli (Piaw, 2014). g. Attention is a state of mental alertness and a focusing activity (Posner & Peterson, 1990). When the individual gathers his attention on a particular stimulus, s/he realizes the fit for purpose features more easily, and a feature which is paid attention to is placed in the consciousness. Thus, it becomes easier to choose and learn the information, the mind does not engage in unnecessary details (Prakash, 2015). Therefore, attention is emphasized as a mechanism to initiate learning (Ainley & Luntley, 2007; Chen & Huang, 2014). However, it is impossible for an individual to be aware of and pay attention to everything at the same time. This is even more difficult in school life, especially when conscious learning takes place. Because, the speed of the presentation and the way of presenting the stimulus are different. T

negative effects of multitasking

Negative outcomes of distracted learning1. Learning tasks take longer to complete because of the time spent on distracting activities and because, upon returning to theassignment, the student has to refamiliarize him/herself with the material.2. Mental fatigue caused by switching back and forth between tasks. The cognitive cost is especially high when alternating between tasksthat call for different sets of demands, such as the formal, precise language required for an English essay and the casual, friendly tone ofa text message to a friend.3. If attention is divided during the encoding process, the student’s subsequent memory (long term retention) of what he/she worked onwill be impaired. Impairment can also extends to nearby peers.4. When a student is distracted during learning, his/her brain actually processes and stores information in different, less useful ways,resulting in knowledge that is much less adept at extending and extrapolating to new contexts (decreased transfer).5. Off-task media multitasking while learning is negatively associated with student performance (i.e., grades, GPa). True multitasking can only occur if the two tasks at hand are very simple and do not compete with each other for the same mental resource. when most people refer to multitasking, they are actually talking about switch-tasking (also called task-switching), that is, attempting to do multiple attention-requiring tasks at the same time. The bad news is that switching, even rapidly, between two or more tasks is just not very efficient or effective, it actually damages productivity and relationships (Cren

Types of attention

Many types of attention are occurring in classrooms all the time, and fluctuations between external attention (e.g., on the instructor’s voice) and internal attention (e.g., connecting new material to prior knowledge) may be more beneficial for learning than we might have assumed. Here, we describe a frame

. As such, we have chosen to focus on two key dimensions that readily delineate attention in the classroom: 1) internal/external attention (Chun et al., 2011), and 2) on-topic/off-topic attention, each of which is described below (see Figure 1).xternal attention, often referred to as perceptual attention, is described by Chun et al. (2011) as the selection and modulation of sensory information. When you stare out into a crowded city street looking for a taxi, your brain is able to filter out irrelevant information and heighten your focus on large, yellow, moving objects to reach your goal. Research on external attention has shown that the brain has methods of both boosting signals representing relevant information and suppressing signals representing irrelevant information, functions that are critical for navigating our crowded, complex environments. Only a tiny portion of what our eyes see in the world is actually consciously perceived by our brains, and without this ability to filter sensory information, we may be unable to focus on what is important amid sensory overload. In contrast to external attention, internal attention is described as the selection and modulation of internally generated information, such as the contents of memory. While external attention allows us to sample new sensory information from the environment, internal attention lets us process information even in the absence of sensory stimuli. For example, even without looking at the text on this page, you could be thinking about this new concept of internal attention, perhaps recalling memories of your own experiences in the classroom or coming up with a mnemonic device to help you remember this taxonomy.attention can be directed toward course-relevant (on-topic) information or not-course-relevant (off-topic) information. In most cases, the distinction between on-topic and off-topic attention is relatively clear. For example, examining a diagram on a handout would be considered on-topic attention, while making a mental list of groceries would be considered off-topic attention. However, there may be other scenarios in which the distinction between on- and off-topic attention is less clear, such as when a student recalls information learned in another course that might lead to the realization of important cross-disciplinary connections. Moreover, defining a particular internal thought or external stimulus as on- or off-topic may depend on one’s perspective as student or instructor. For our purposes, we will consider more overt examples of on-topic attention that are directly tied to content learning, while acknowledging that many forms of non–content related attention may still be important and in the service of student learning (e.g., an instructor talking about his or her pathway into science).

On-Topic External Attention

When you notice a student with eye gaze locked on your PowerPoint slides, nodding occasionally, posture maintained, you may feel a sense of relief and assume that this student is clearly “paying attention” in the colloquial sense. One might assume that this student is the most engaged and the most likely to retain the information being conveyed, as he or she portrays the ways we have been socialized to show that we are engaged. Certainly, by focusing eye gaze on slides and listening actively to an instructor’s voice, one might maximize the brain’s ability to take in new information. But is it always the case that this is most beneficial for learning? Perhaps our assumption that eye contact is a natural and comfortable way to engage attentively does not hold for all students equally.

Cognitive science research on memory and attention suggests that diligently going through lecture slides and rereading material over and over the night before an exam may allow for short-term recall but does not foster long-term memory or understanding (Capeda et al., 2006). Instead, deeper processing of the material, tying new material to prior knowledge, and actively retrieving information from memory seem to be more effective for long-term learning. Perhaps, then, external on-topic attention in the classroom is necessary but not sufficient for effective learning. This may provide some explanation for why lecture yields inferior learning compared with even the most modest active-learning approaches (Freeman et al., 2014). If so, then it makes sense to balance out pedagogical techniques that emphasize external attention (lecture slides, videos, etc.) with other techniques, as discussed in the section On-Topic Internal Attention.

On-Topic Internal Attention

Thinking beyond the idea of “paying attention” and trying to understand, in particular, what students are “paying attention to” may allow us to better conceptualize what is happening in students’ brains during a class session as they form complex networks of understanding. When a student’s gaze drifts away from the lecture slides, it is not necessarily the case that the students’ attention is now off-topic. On the contrary, it seems likely that moments of prompted quiet thinking time are beneficial for learning (Owens et al., 2017).

Evidence supporting this idea comes readily from research demonstrating the utility of active-learning practices in the classroom (Tanner, 2013; Johnson et al., 1991, 1998; Goodwin et al., 1991), particularly those that allow students a chance to think, digest new information, identify their confusions, or connect new concepts with what is already known. For example, the “think” phase of a think–pair–share activity is likely crucial to allow students to contemplate the question at hand before discussing with their colleagues. These forms of on-topic, internally focused attention are perhaps just as important for learning as on-topic, externally focused attention. Additionally, on-topic internal attention can allow students the chance to practice metacognition, that is, reflecting on their own thinking and learning (Tanner, 2012).

Off-Topic External Attention

A clock ticks, a pencil taps, a truck starts blaring its backup signal outside. All sorts of external stimuli can grab our attention automatically, often beyond our ability to control it. Amid so many possible distractions, it is actually astonishing that our brains are able to maintain focus on goal-relevant information (e.g., listening to an instructor’s voice). Usefully, this ability to focus does not prevent us from noticing the sudden appearance of potentially threatening information. The classic example used is that of a hunter-gatherer searching for tiny berries in a bush. To survive effectively, the searcher must maintain sharp focus on the goal-relevant information (round red objects) but not so focused that they do not notice the preying tiger. For students in a classroom, the threat of tigers may not be so dire, but sudden noises or changes in environmental stimuli could be indicative of useful information that is worth a shift in attention.

Recent work shows that four times every second our brains shift between a state of sharp focus and a state of broad awareness of our surroundings (Fiebelkorn et al., 2018; Fiebelkorn and Kastner, 2019). We obviously do not consciously switch our attention to new external stimuli that frequently, but our brains do seem to give us the option to switch attention that often, a capability that likely evolved under evolutionary pressures to stay alert while maintaining what feels to us like continuous, steady focus. In the classroom, there may be ways that we can optimize on-topic attention by continuously drawing attention back to the material when distractions arise (for more on shifting attention, see How Instructors May Leverage Attention).

Off-Topic Internal Attention

Similarly to how loud noises can draw our attention externally, salient internal experiences can draw attention internally. Suppose a student has a family member in the hospital for surgery today. As much as the student tries to volitionally direct attention toward a lecture slide or worksheet, the student’s attention may be drawn back to the topic of his or her family member repeatedly over the course of the class session. Sometimes, off-topic thoughts, worries, or ruminations take priority over on-topic information, and our brains are well adapted to redirect our focus toward those high-priority thoughts. Maybe the student who appears to be “zoning out” is actually rehearsing material for another course, or stressed about an exam next period. Off-topic, internal attention can come from many sources and can be difficult to identify or act upon.

As noted before, mind-wandering makes up a substantial part of our day-to-day lives. Off-topic mind-wandering may sometimes be distracting, resulting in poorer task performance, decreased learning, lower grade point average, poorer memory for lecture material, and less motivation to learn (Risko et al., 2012; Randall et al., 2014; Wammes et al., 2016; Unsworth and McMillan, 2017). However, off-topic mind-wandering could potentially provide a useful source of material for more creative thinking and reflection, perhaps allowing students to bring new ideas and perspectives to the topic at hand. It is important to note that studies have investigated both intentional and unintentional mind-wandering (Robison et al., 2020), because these off-topic thoughts may not always be under conscious control. By understanding the ubiquity of mind-wandering in the classroom, one can think more carefully about the many possible ways to guide students’ attention in the classroom, as discussed in How Instructors May Leverage Attention.

One well-documented source of impaired performance in the classroom (Shih et al., 1999) is stereotype threat, which occurs when one is at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s social group (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Recent theories have posited that stereotype threat yields under performance by sapping working memory resources. Put another way, stereotype threat may redirect internal attention from on-topic (considering the material) to off-topic (considering one’s identity, abilities, and social environment), making it more challenging to perform the task at hand (Pennington et al., 2016). By understanding the ways that implicit or explicit biases can affect students’ attention, we can develop better strategies for reducing these influences.

Active learning

There is ample evidence that teaching methods that include some form of active learning (e.g., think–pair–share, group discussions) can produce superior learning gains compared with lecture-only teaching methods (e.g., Freeman , 2014). But how? And why does the impact of active learning appear to vary across classrooms and instructors? Although there has been relatively little research investigating the mechanisms leading to active-learning outcomes, some potential hypotheses have been offered. One possibility is that instructors act as “cognitive coaches” during active learning, structuring opportunities for exploration, confusion, and resolution that directly lead to more student learning in class. Another possibility is that active-learning classrooms provide more opportunities for social interaction among students that could result in increased social networks among students and indirectly more out-of-class learning. Like most complex phenomena, the underlying mechanisms of the positive effects of active-learning strategies are likely multiple, involving both of these ideas and many more.

Technology and learning

. Technology increasingly impacts on the ways in which people acquire, update, and correct their understanding. The emergence of mobile networked devices now means that information can be accessed anywhere, anytime with a connection to the Internet. This new information reality has created substantial affordances for learning both in formal education and in informal settings. These opportunities have seemingly not come without a cost. Many scholars and commentators [e.g. 1-3] argue that the ease with which we can now access information is negatively and persistently impacting our capacity to learn, understand, and interact with others. In particular, attention is implicated as a key factor in the apparent negative influence of technology on learning in the digital age.he cognitive ability to allocate our attention selectively allows us to prioritize only some elements of the environment while filtering out others henomenon, selectively attending to only a single auditory source amongst many, demonstrates the cognitive capacity to voluntarily filter information according to our internal goals. In some cases, however, our attention is captured involuntarily although attention can greatly focus our thoughts and actions on only some aspects of our environment, the ways in which we allocate our attention depend on both our internal goals as well as external factors.It has voluntary and involuntary components and can be influenced by factors such as interest, motivation, and self-regulation.