Biomechanical Risk Factors of Tibial Stress Fractures

Introduction/Overview[edit | edit source]

A tibial stress fracture (TSF) is a chronic injury that occurs when there is a disparity between external forces and the body’s ability to recover from them. Specifically, it occurs when the accumulation of repetitive submaximal forces to the tibia exceeds the bone’s ability to absorb the impact and remodel (1) If not treated, this can result in microscopic cracks in the bone which can eventually lead to macroscopic fractures (1). It is officially considered a fracture when there is visible indication of fracture of the bone from medical imaging (2). Stress fractures can be categorized into 2 types: fatigue fracture or insufficient fracture. Fatigue fracture occurs when there are abnormal loads applied to a healthy aligned bone and are common in the athletic and healthy population (2). Whereas an insufficient fracture occurs when average stress causes damage to clinically unhealthy bone (2). Although stress fractures are not limited to the tibia, as it is also seen in the hip, tarsals, femur and even the ribs, it is most commonly occurring in the tibia (1). Biomechanical Pathophysiology: Microscopic Level The biomechanical pathophysiology of a tibial stress fracture can be explained via the Targeted Bone Remodelling Concept (3). The vicious cycle begins with repetitive submaximal loading to the tibia, such as running, which causes stress to the bone. The stress disrupts the osteocytes which causes bone fatigue, micro damage and eventually cell apoptosis (3). Osteoclasts arrive to the site of injury and remove the dead bone cells (3). This results in a temporary negative bone space and a reduction in bone structural integrity (3). Within the first few weeks, osteoblast recruitment occurs in the remodeling space and unmineralized bone is formed in the cavity. At this point, only 65-70% of the matrix is completely mineralized and mechanical stiffness is not completely restored (3). From here, there are 2 fates of the bone: either the bone is fully mineralized, which can take up to a year to complete, or the submaximal loading continues (3). If the loading persists, over time the microcracks can become microfractures and eventually a true fracture (3).

Intrinsic Risk Factors[edit | edit source]

1. Knee Stiffness In a 2-year prospective study, which consisted of 300 runners, it was found that those who sustained an overuse running injury had significantly higher knee stiffness (4). Messier et al. suggests that the knee acts like a shock absorber by dissipating forces during foot strike in the running gait cycle (4). Thus, if the knee is stiffer, this results less energy dispersion which can lead to damage in the surrounding area (4). 2. Sex Sex is a highly recognized large contributor to risk of tibial stress fracture (5). Female athletes have a 2.3x higher risk of stress fracture in comparison to males in sex-comparable sports such as baseball, basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, indoor/outdoor track to name a few (5). This increase in risk could be attributed to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport, formerly know as the Female Athlete Triad (6). This is a decrease in caloric intake due to social pressures to maintain a certain appearance, menstrual disturbance/hormone imbalance and low bone mineral density. With low caloric intake, the body diverts limited calories and nutrients to more vital processes which can impair bone remodeling/abnormal bone turn over (7). 3. Anthropometrics and Body Composition Tibia width is a widely thought concept that wider bones provide a mechanical advantage such that they can disperse more forces due to the larger cross-sectional area (8). Inversely, various studies indicate that those with narrower tibias had a higher risk of developing a stress fracture injury (8; 9). Additionally, females on average have more narrow tibias and thinner cortices suggesting lower biomechanical stress tolerance (8). It has also been suggested that a smaller cross section of muscles in the thigh is a sign of risk due to increase in bone fatigue and can indicate low conditioning of the bone (8). 4. Bone Mineral Density Bone mineral density has commonly been used as a marker for one of the characteristics of bone strength, thus it also makes a strong marker for risk of fracture. There is an inverse relationship where the lower the bone mineral density there is higher the bone fragility. This results in an increase risk of insufficiency fracture (10). Those low calcium intake and hormonal disruption are linked to low BMD (10).

Extrinsic Risk Factors[edit | edit source]

1. Sport of choice The highest rates of stress fractures found amongst the endurance athlete population such as cross country, soccer, basketball, track and field, gymnastics, and dance (5). Generally, any sport or activity that results in frequent jumping or loading of the lower limb is associated with an increase in tibial stress fracture (5). 2. Increase in training A sudden increase in exercise intensity, rapid progression of exercise and duration can increase risk of developing a tibial stress fracture (5).Increasing distance beyond 32 km (20 miles) per week was found to be associated with an increased rate of stress fractures (8). Athletes with shorter preseasons had higher risks of injury due to heavy increase in conditioning and reduction in rest (5). 3. Training surface Tibial strain in runners were 48-258% higher when running over ground compared to treadmills (11). To decrease the stress subjected to the shank, avoid concrete running, and opt for treadmill, grass, or a rubber track. 4. Orthotics Worn running shoes may increase the risk for stress fracture due to decreased shock absorption. There is an overall decrease in incidence of overuse injury and more site-specific reduction in the incidence of femoral and tibial stress fractures with the implementation of orthotic insoles (7).

Clinical Considerations[edit | edit source]

Since this is a chronic injury, it is important to recognize the symptoms and signs before the microcrack evolves into a true fracture. Take careful consideration of training regiment and rest periods when a client presents with “shin splints” or medial tibial stress syndrome (1). For this is the early stage of a tibial stress fracture.

If a person presents with symptoms of tibial stress fracture, consider cross training of a sport that imparts less repetitive stress to the lower extremity. Consider golf, swimming, cycling or yoga for have very low reported incidences of stress fractures (12).

In a prospective study of track and field athletes, 60% of those who have sustained a fracture in the past, are reinjured within the year (13). This could relate back to the idea that bone does not fully heal until approximately a year after injury. Be cautious to not return to maximal capacity immediately after perceived recovery.

If the person is an athlete presenting with symptoms of tibial stress fracture or medial tibial stress syndrome, consider other factors like Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport. Assess their nutrition, psychological state (self-efficacy, social pressures, body image) and menstrual cycle. Addressing these factors can aid in rehabilitation and recovery.