Introduction to Sports Nutrition: Difference between revisions
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'''Original Editor '''- [[User: | '''Original Editor '''- [[User:Wanda van Niekerk|Wanda van Niekerk]] | ||
'''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} | '''Top Contributors''' - {{Special:Contributors/{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} | ||
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* Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins<ref name=":4" /> | * Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins<ref name=":4" /> | ||
* Promotes wound healing<ref>Roefs MT, Sluijter JP, Vader P. Extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in tissue repair. Trends in cell biology. 2020 Dec 1;30(12):990-1013.</ref> | * Promotes wound healing<ref>Roefs MT, Sluijter JP, Vader P. Extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in tissue repair. Trends in cell biology. 2020 Dec 1;30(12):990-1013.</ref> | ||
** Plays a role in development and repair of bone, muscle and skin | ** Plays a role in the development and repair of bone, muscle and skin | ||
** Protein needs are increased during more stressful times and/or during illness | ** Protein needs are increased during more stressful times and/or during illness | ||
* Essential for transport of oxygen around the body<ref>Bellelli A, Tame JR. Hemoglobin allostery and pharmacology. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2022 Apr 1;84:101037.</ref> | * Essential for transport of oxygen around the body<ref>Bellelli A, Tame JR. Hemoglobin allostery and pharmacology. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2022 Apr 1;84:101037.</ref> | ||
| | | | ||
* An essential nutrient, necessary for normal functioning of the body | * An essential nutrient, necessary for the normal functioning of the body | ||
* Concentrated form of energy<ref>Muscella A, Stefàno E, Lunetti P, Capobianco L, Marsigliante S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7767423/pdf/biomolecules-10-01699.pdf The regulation of fat metabolism during aerobic exercise.] Biomolecules. 2020 Dec 21;10(12):1699.</ref> | * Concentrated form of energy<ref>Muscella A, Stefàno E, Lunetti P, Capobianco L, Marsigliante S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7767423/pdf/biomolecules-10-01699.pdf The regulation of fat metabolism during aerobic exercise.] Biomolecules. 2020 Dec 21;10(12):1699.</ref> | ||
* Help maintain body temperature and insulation of body organs<ref>Mohajan D, Mohajan HK. A [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370155448_A_Study_on_Body_Fat_Percentage_for_Physical_Fitness_and_Prevention_of_Obesity_A_Two_Compartment_Model Study on Body Fat Percentage for Physical Fitness and Prevention of Obesity: A Two Compartment Model.] Journal of Innovations in Medical Research. 2023 Apr 21;2(4):1-0.</ref> | * Help maintain body temperature and insulation of body organs<ref>Mohajan D, Mohajan HK. A [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370155448_A_Study_on_Body_Fat_Percentage_for_Physical_Fitness_and_Prevention_of_Obesity_A_Two_Compartment_Model Study on Body Fat Percentage for Physical Fitness and Prevention of Obesity: A Two Compartment Model.] Journal of Innovations in Medical Research. 2023 Apr 21;2(4):1-0.</ref> | ||
* Necessary for | * Necessary for healthy skin and normal nerve function<ref>Yildiran H, Macit MS, Özata Uyar G. New approach to peripheral nerve injury: nutritional therapy. Nutritional neuroscience. 2020 Oct 2;23(10):744-55.</ref> | ||
* Carry the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K<ref name=":9">Meijaard E, Abrams JF, Slavin JL, Sheil D. [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.878644/full Dietary fats, human nutrition and the environment: Balance and sustainability.] Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022 Apr 25;9:878644.</ref> | * Carry the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K<ref name=":9">Meijaard E, Abrams JF, Slavin JL, Sheil D. [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.878644/full Dietary fats, human nutrition and the environment: Balance and sustainability.] Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022 Apr 25;9:878644.</ref> | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== Micronutrients === | === Micronutrients === | ||
Micronutrients are essential, but we need these in smaller amounts.<ref name=":5">Beck KL, von Hurst PR, O'Brien WJ, Badenhorst CE. Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;158:112618.</ref> Micronutrients are necessary for cell growth and function. The human body can not produce micronutrients so | Micronutrients are essential, but we need these in smaller amounts.<ref name=":5">Beck KL, von Hurst PR, O'Brien WJ, Badenhorst CE. Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;158:112618.</ref> Micronutrients are necessary for cell growth and function. The human body can not produce micronutrients so they must be consumed.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Table 2. Micronutrients in nutrition | |+Table 2. Micronutrients in nutrition | ||
Line 53: | Line 53: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Fat soluble - absorb through intestines with fat (Vit A, D, E, K)<ref name=":5" /> | * Fat-soluble - absorb through intestines with fat (Vit A, D, E, K)<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* Water soluble - dissolve in water (Vit B complex and C)<ref name=":5" /> | * Water soluble - dissolve in water (Vit B complex and C)<ref name=":5" /> | ||
| | | | ||
Line 87: | Line 87: | ||
* butternut | * butternut | ||
| | | | ||
* plant based sources | * plant-based sources | ||
** beans, lentils, legumes | ** beans, lentils, legumes | ||
** nuts, nut butter, seed | ** nuts, nut butter, seed | ||
Line 102: | Line 102: | ||
| | | | ||
* milk, yoghurt, cheese | * milk, yoghurt, cheese | ||
* non-dairy | * non-dairy milk and yoghurt | ||
* kefir | * kefir | ||
| | | | ||
* plant based fats are better | * plant-based fats are better | ||
** avocado, olives, nuts/seeds | ** avocado, olives, nuts/seeds | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 125: | Line 125: | ||
** E<sub>out</sub> = expended energy | ** E<sub>out</sub> = expended energy | ||
* Energy balance is a dynamic process | * Energy balance is a dynamic process | ||
** | ** For example, if energy intake is changed through a different diet, this can affect the physiological and biological components of energy expenditure.<ref name=":7" /> | ||
* Influencing factors of energy balance can be<ref name=":7" />: | * Influencing factors of energy balance can be<ref name=":7" />: | ||
** internal | ** internal | ||
Line 205: | Line 205: | ||
!Carbohydrate targets | !Carbohydrate targets | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Light (low intensity exercise or skill-based training activities) | |Light (low-intensity exercise or skill-based training activities) | ||
|3 - 5 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |3 - 5 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 211: | Line 211: | ||
|5 - 7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |5 - 7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|- | |- | ||
|High (endurance training programme, 1 to 3 hours/day, moderate to high intensity exercise) | |High (endurance training programme, 1 to 3 hours/day, moderate to high-intensity exercise) | ||
|6 - 10 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |6 - 10 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Very high (extreme training, more than 4 to g hours/day moderate to high intensity exercise) | |Very high (extreme training, more than 4 to g hours/day moderate to high-intensity exercise) | ||
|8 - 12 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | |8 - 12 g/kg of athlete's BW/day | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 258: | Line 258: | ||
* Vegetarians need more protein | * Vegetarians need more protein | ||
* Benefits of protein intake at higher levels:<ref name=":10" /> | * Benefits of protein intake at higher levels:<ref name=":10" /> | ||
** decreased blood | ** decreased blood triglyceride levels | ||
** improved body composition | ** improved body composition | ||
** enhanced weight loss | ** enhanced weight loss | ||
Line 280: | Line 280: | ||
* Prevent excessive hypohydration during exercise<ref name=":1" /> | * Prevent excessive hypohydration during exercise<ref name=":1" /> | ||
* Replace fluid losses following exercise prior to the next training session/exercise bout<ref name=":1" /> | * Replace fluid losses following exercise prior to the next training session/exercise bout<ref name=":1" /> | ||
* Avoid exercise associated hyponatremia<ref>Seal AD, Kavouras SA. A review of risk factors and prevention strategies for exercise associated hyponatremia. Autonomic Neuroscience. 2022 Mar 1;238:102930.</ref> | * Avoid exercise associated hyponatremia<ref>Seal AD, Kavouras SA. A review of risk factors and prevention strategies for exercise-associated hyponatremia. Autonomic Neuroscience. 2022 Mar 1;238:102930.</ref> | ||
** Read more: [[Fluid Excess/Intoxication]] | ** Read more: [[Fluid Excess/Intoxication]] | ||
Line 290: | Line 290: | ||
* environmental conditions | * environmental conditions | ||
* duration of exercise | * duration of exercise | ||
Dehydration has a negative impact on physical performance for activities that last more than 30 seconds, but it has no significant | Dehydration has a negative impact on physical performance for activities that last more than 30 seconds, but it has no significant impact on performance for activities that last less than 15 seconds.<ref>Carlton A, Orr RM. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271773635_The_effects_of_fluid_loss_on_physical_performance_A_critical_review The effects of fluid loss on physical performance: A critical review.] Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2015 Dec 1;4(4):357-63.</ref> | ||
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Current Recommendations on Hydration<ref name=":10">Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. [http://drugfreesport.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Position-stand-on-Nutrition-Athletic-Performance-ACSM-2016-1.pdf Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance.] Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016 Mar 1;116(3):501-28.</ref>: | American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Current Recommendations on Hydration<ref name=":10">Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. [http://drugfreesport.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Position-stand-on-Nutrition-Athletic-Performance-ACSM-2016-1.pdf Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance.] Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016 Mar 1;116(3):501-28.</ref>: |
Revision as of 11:56, 6 July 2023
Original Editor - Wanda van Niekerk
Top Contributors - Wanda van Niekerk, Jess Bell and Lucinda hampton
Basics of Nutrition[edit | edit source]
Macronutrients[edit | edit source]
Macronutrients provide calories or energy to the body.[1] Their function is to promote:
- cellular growth
- metabolism
- maintenance of normal bodily functions
Macronutrients are necessary in large amounts to provide a full and proper effect. The three types of macronutrients are[1]:
- carbohydrates
- proteins
- fats
Carbohydrates | Proteins | Fats |
---|---|---|
|
Micronutrients[edit | edit source]
Micronutrients are essential, but we need these in smaller amounts.[12] Micronutrients are necessary for cell growth and function. The human body can not produce micronutrients so they must be consumed.[12]
Vitamins | Minerals and their function |
---|---|
Water[edit | edit source]
- Water is best for hydration, but any calorie-free, non-caffeinated, non-alcoholic fluid can work
- Caffeine and alcohol function as diuretics[14]
Food Groups[edit | edit source]
Fruits | Vegetables | Protein | Grains/starch | Dairy | Fats |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
MyPlate provides good examples of healthy eating. Read more here.
Sports Nutrition[edit | edit source]
Energy Balance and Exercise[edit | edit source]
Some considerations with energy balance and exercise include[15]:
- Energy balance is important for athletes wanting to change their body mass and/or body composition in order to improve performance or make a specified weight category for their sport.
- Insufficient energy consumption in relation to expended energy will result in the effects of training being lost, as muscle and fat will be used as energy sources.
- Restricted energy intake may compromise an athlete's ability to obtain necessary nutrients.
- Athletes need to consume enough energy to cover the energy costs of[15]:
- daily living
- their sport
- building and repairing muscle tissue
- Energy balance = Ein = Eout
- Ein = energy consumed
- Eout = expended energy
- Energy balance is a dynamic process
- For example, if energy intake is changed through a different diet, this can affect the physiological and biological components of energy expenditure.[15]
- Influencing factors of energy balance can be[15]:
- internal
- genetic
- epigenetic
- metabolic
- hormonal
- neural
- external
- environmental
- social
- behavioural
- internal
Energy intake | Energy expenditure |
---|---|
|
|
Training Consequences of a Negative Energy Balance[edit | edit source]
- Increased risk of stress fractures[16]
- Decreased athletic performance[17]
- Slower phospocreatine recovery rates[18]
- Athlete enters a hypometabolic catabolic state (low insulin growth factors, high cortisol-releasing hormone, high cortisol levels) and this hinders the addition of lean muscle mass.[18]
- Increased risk of injury[19]
- Changes (decrease) in metabolic rate[20]
- Breakdown of lean tissue[21]
How Many Calories do Athletes Need?[edit | edit source]
- TEE = REE x AL x TAE[18]
- TEE = Total energy expenditure
- REE = Resting energy expenditure
- AL = Active lifestyle
- TAE = Training activity energy
- Adequate calories are a vital component of nutrition for athletes
- Quality is just as important as quantity (what you eat is just as important as how much you eat)[18]
Carbohydrate Intake and Needs for Athletes[edit | edit source]
Carbohydrates for athletes:
- Provide energy[22]
- Contributes:
- dietary fibre
- Vitamins for example vitamin B complex
- Antioxidants in fruits and vegetables
Considerations when discussing carbohydrates with athletes[18]:
- quality of carbohydrates (low versus high quality)
- High versus low glycaemic index
- Timing of intake
- Variety of sources necessary
- vegetables, fruits, sweet potatoes, quinoa, brown rice, wild rice, nuts, seeds
How Much Carbohydrates[edit | edit source]
- Carbohydrate intake ranges from 3 to 10 g/kg BW/day (it may reach 12g/kg BW/day for extreme and prolonged activities)[23]
- Intake ranges are dependent on[23]:
- fuel demands of training and competition
- balance between performance and training adaptation goals
- total energy requirement of the athlete
- body composition goals of athlete
Activity Level | Carbohydrate targets |
---|---|
Light (low-intensity exercise or skill-based training activities) | 3 - 5 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
Moderate (Moderate training/exercise for about an hour/day | 5 - 7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
High (endurance training programme, 1 to 3 hours/day, moderate to high-intensity exercise) | 6 - 10 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
Very high (extreme training, more than 4 to g hours/day moderate to high-intensity exercise) | 8 - 12 g/kg of athlete's BW/day |
Timing and Glycemic Index of Carbohydrates[edit | edit source]
- More carbohydrates on game days and days of intense training
- Fewer carbohydrates on off days and recovery days
- Fewer carbohydrates means that the athlete eats more vegetables, leafy greens
- Lower glycaemic index carbohydrates on non-training days
Fat Intake and Needs for Athletes[edit | edit source]
- Healthy diets do include fat as a component
- Fat provides energy[23]
- Fat is an essential component of cell membranes
- Fat facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins[11]
- Fat aids in recovery
- Growth hormone
- Testosterone levels in athletes
- Fat helps with[23]:
- nervous system repair
- cognitive function
- decreases body inflammation
- Considerations with fat intake[18]:
- omega 6: omega 3 ratio
- essential fatty acids
- fish oil fats (omega-3's)
- avoid trans fats
How Much Fat?[edit | edit source]
- Fat intake should not be less than 20% of an athlete's daily caloric intake[23]
- Typically between 20% to 35% of total energy intake is acceptable[23]
- Recommended: 0.5 to 1.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day[23]
Protein Intake and Needs for Athletes[edit | edit source]
- Athletes need more protein than the recommended daily allowance (RDA)
- Recommendations typically range from 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg of athlete's BW/day[23]
- Endurance athletes need 1.2 to 1.7 g/kg of athlete's BW/day
- Strength training athletes need 1.6 - 2.2 g/kg of athlete's BW/day
- Vegetarians need more protein
- Benefits of protein intake at higher levels:[23]
- decreased blood triglyceride levels
- improved body composition
- enhanced weight loss
- stabilised blood glucose levels
- reduced risk of disease
- improved bone health
Timing and Protein Intake[edit | edit source]
- Must have protein with every meal to help with muscle recovery and muscle protein synthesis[23]
- Regular spacing of intakes of modest amounts of protein after exercise and throughout the day is recommended[23]
Water[edit | edit source]
- Euhydrated = when an individual has normal body water content[24]
- Hypohydrated = when an individual has lower than normal body water content[24]
Hydration Goals for Athletes[edit | edit source]
- Begin exercise in a euhydrated state[25]
- Prevent excessive hypohydration during exercise[25]
- Replace fluid losses following exercise prior to the next training session/exercise bout[25]
- Avoid exercise associated hyponatremia[26]
- Read more: Fluid Excess/Intoxication
Fluid needs for athletes are individualistic and are reliant on factors such as[25]:
- sweat rate of the individual
- type of exercise
- exercise intensity
- environmental conditions
- duration of exercise
Dehydration has a negative impact on physical performance for activities that last more than 30 seconds, but it has no significant impact on performance for activities that last less than 15 seconds.[27]
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Current Recommendations on Hydration[23]:
- Before exercise:
- 5 - 10 ml/kg BW water, 2 - 4 hours before exercise
- During exercise:
- 0.4 - 0.8 l/h during exercise
- After exercise:
- 1.25 - 1.5 l for every kg BW lost
Post-Workout Nutrition[edit | edit source]
Athletes can apply different strategies for recovery after exercise. The amount, consumption and timing of nutritional strategies differ according to factors such as[28]:
- the type of sport
- the time between training sessions
- the athlete's level of preparation
- the convenience of the specific nutritional strategy
The 4R's is a useful mnemonic to consider[28]:
- Rehydrate
- enough water to compensate for weight loss during training (1.25 - 1.5 litres for every kg BW lost)
- Refuel
- combination of carbohydrates and protein is a good strategy for glycogen replenishment and tissue repair
- Repair
- ingestion of high quality protein can contribute to faster tissue growth and repair
- Rest
- optimal sleeping time and good quality sleep is necessary for recovery
Resources[edit | edit source]
- Ten things you need to know about sports nutrition
- The Athlete's Kitchen: Sports Nutrition Myths BUSTED!
- Australian Institute of Sport. Nutrition resources
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Costa-Pinto R, Gantner D. Macronutrients, minerals, vitamins and energy. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. 2020 Mar 1;21(3):157-61.
- ↑ Slavin J, Carlson J. Carbohydrates. Advances in nutrition. 2014 Nov;5(6):760.
- ↑ Nimgampalle M, Chakravarthy H, Devanathan V. Glucose metabolism in the brain: An update. InRecent Developments in Applied Microbiology and Biochemistry 2021 Jan 1 (pp. 77-88). Academic Press.
- ↑ Blaak EE, Riccardi G, Cho L. Carbohydrates: Separating fact from fiction. Atherosclerosis. 2021 Jul 1;328:114-23.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Whitford D. Proteins: structure and function. John Wiley & Sons; 2013 Apr 25.
- ↑ Roefs MT, Sluijter JP, Vader P. Extracellular vesicle-associated proteins in tissue repair. Trends in cell biology. 2020 Dec 1;30(12):990-1013.
- ↑ Bellelli A, Tame JR. Hemoglobin allostery and pharmacology. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2022 Apr 1;84:101037.
- ↑ Muscella A, Stefàno E, Lunetti P, Capobianco L, Marsigliante S. The regulation of fat metabolism during aerobic exercise. Biomolecules. 2020 Dec 21;10(12):1699.
- ↑ Mohajan D, Mohajan HK. A Study on Body Fat Percentage for Physical Fitness and Prevention of Obesity: A Two Compartment Model. Journal of Innovations in Medical Research. 2023 Apr 21;2(4):1-0.
- ↑ Yildiran H, Macit MS, Özata Uyar G. New approach to peripheral nerve injury: nutritional therapy. Nutritional neuroscience. 2020 Oct 2;23(10):744-55.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Meijaard E, Abrams JF, Slavin JL, Sheil D. Dietary fats, human nutrition and the environment: Balance and sustainability. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022 Apr 25;9:878644.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Beck KL, von Hurst PR, O'Brien WJ, Badenhorst CE. Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2021 Dec 1;158:112618.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Godswill AG, Somtochukwu IV, Ikechukwu AO, Kate EC. Health benefits of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and their associated deficiency diseases: A systematic review. International Journal of Food Sciences. 2020 Jan 7;3(1):1-32.
- ↑ Alwis US, Haddad R, Monaghan TF, Abrams P, Dmochowski R, Bower W, Wein AJ, Roggeman S, Weiss JP, Mourad S, Delanghe J. Impact of food and drinks on urine production: A systematic review. International Journal of Clinical Practice. 2020 Sep;74(9):e13539.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Manore, M. Chapter 5: Energy Requirements and Measurement of Energy Expenditure. In Burke, L, Deakin, V, Minehan M. Clinical Sports Nutrition. 6th Edition. Sydney. McGraw Hill. 2021
- ↑ Abbott A, Bird ML, Wild E, Brown SM, Stewart G, Mulcahey MK. Part I: epidemiology and risk factors for stress fractures in female athletes. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2020 Jan 2;48(1):17-24.
- ↑ Rupasinghe WA, Perera TS, Silva KD, Samita S, Wickramaratne MN. Nutritional intake of sport undergraduates in Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. BMC nutrition. 2023 Jan 2;9(1):2.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Mancini, L. Sports Nutrition. National Fellow Online Lecture Series. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SGM1uLNATA8. (last accessed 06 July 2023)
- ↑ Logue DM, Madigan SM, Melin A, Delahunt E, Heinen M, Donnell SJ, Corish CA. Low energy availability in athletes 2020: an updated narrative review of prevalence, risk, within-day energy balance, knowledge, and impact on sports performance. Nutrients. 2020 Mar 20;12(3):835.
- ↑ Siedler MR, De Souza MJ, Albracht-Schulte K, Sekiguchi Y, Tinsley GM. The Influence of Energy Balance and Availability on Resting Metabolic Rate: Implications for Assessment and Future Research Directions. Sports Medicine. 2023 May 22:1-20.
- ↑ Benardot D. Nutritional concerns for the artistic athlete. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics. 2021 Feb 1;32(1):51-64.
- ↑ Moore DR, Sygo J, Morton JP. Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations. European Journal of Sport Science. 2022 May 4;22(5):684-96.
- ↑ 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 23.11 23.12 Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016 Mar 1;116(3):501-28.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Barley OR, Chapman DW, Abbiss CR. Reviewing the current methods of assessing hydration in athletes. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2020 Dec;17:1-3.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Belval LN, Hosokawa Y, Casa DJ, Adams WM, Armstrong LE, Baker LB, Burke L, Cheuvront S, Chiampas G, González-Alonso J, Huggins RA. Practical hydration solutions for sports. Nutrients. 2019 Jul 9;11(7):1550.
- ↑ Seal AD, Kavouras SA. A review of risk factors and prevention strategies for exercise-associated hyponatremia. Autonomic Neuroscience. 2022 Mar 1;238:102930.
- ↑ Carlton A, Orr RM. The effects of fluid loss on physical performance: A critical review. Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2015 Dec 1;4(4):357-63.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Bonilla DA, Pérez-Idárraga A, Odriozola-Martínez A, Kreider RB. The 4R’s framework of nutritional strategies for post-exercise recovery: A review with emphasis on new generation of carbohydrates. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2021 Jan;18(1):103.