Qualitative Research: Difference between revisions
Scott Buxton (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
Scott Buxton (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
||
Line 6: | Line 6: | ||
== Definition == | == Definition == | ||
It can be hard to give just one clear definition of what qualitative research is because its broad | It can be hard to give just one clear definition of what qualitative research is because of its broad, in-depth nature and in what it is trying to achieve. It would be hard to give it justice with a fleeting glance but here are a couple of definitions which will help to explain. | ||
<br> | <br> | ||
<blockquote>Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.<ref name="Merriam">Merriam, S. (2009:13). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, fckLRCA: Jossey-Bass.</ref> Qualitative research is ressearch using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive accont of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.<ref name="Parkinson">Parkinson, G., &amp;amp;amp; Drislane, R. (2011). Qualitative research. In Online dictionary of the social fckLRsciences. [ONLINE] accessed on 15/11/2014 Found at http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl</ref> </blockquote><blockquote> | <blockquote>Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.<ref name="Merriam">Merriam, S. (2009:13). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, fckLRCA: Jossey-Bass.</ref> Qualitative research is ressearch using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive accont of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.<ref name="Parkinson">Parkinson, G., &amp;amp;amp;amp; Drislane, R. (2011). Qualitative research. In Online dictionary of the social fckLRsciences. [ONLINE] accessed on 15/11/2014 Found at http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl</ref> </blockquote><blockquote> | ||
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them<ref name="Denzin & Lincoln">Denzin, N., &amp;amp;amp; Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage</ref>. | Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them<ref name="Denzin & Lincoln">Denzin, N., &amp;amp;amp;amp; Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage</ref>. | ||
“Qualitative research involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values.<ref name="Nkwi">Nkwi, P., Nyamongo, I., &amp;amp;amp; Ryan, G. (2001). Field research into socio-cultural issues: Methodological fckLRguidelines. Yaounde, Cameroon, Africa: International Center for Applied Social Sciences, Research, and Training/UNFPA</ref> | “Qualitative research involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values.<ref name="Nkwi">Nkwi, P., Nyamongo, I., &amp;amp;amp;amp; Ryan, G. (2001). Field research into socio-cultural issues: Methodological fckLRguidelines. Yaounde, Cameroon, Africa: International Center for Applied Social Sciences, Research, and Training/UNFPA</ref> | ||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
For some qualitative research can be seen as a simple data collection method but for others can be a complex, deep and meaningful insight into the world. | For some qualitative research can be seen as a simple data collection method but for others can be a complex, deep and meaningful insight into the world. | ||
<br> | <br> | ||
== Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative == | == Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative == |
Revision as of 19:14, 17 November 2014
Original Editors - Scott Buxton
Top Contributors -The page /Qualitative Research does not exist.
Definition[edit | edit source]
It can be hard to give just one clear definition of what qualitative research is because of its broad, in-depth nature and in what it is trying to achieve. It would be hard to give it justice with a fleeting glance but here are a couple of definitions which will help to explain.
Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.[1] Qualitative research is ressearch using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive accont of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.[2]
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them[3].
“Qualitative research involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values.[4]
For some qualitative research can be seen as a simple data collection method but for others can be a complex, deep and meaningful insight into the world.
Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative[edit | edit source]
Quantitative | Qualitative | |
---|---|---|
Philosophical Foundation | Deductive, reductionalist | Inductive, holistic |
Aim | To test pre-set hypothesis | To explore complex human issues |
Study Plan | Step-wise, predetermined | Iterative, flexible |
Position of researcher | Aims to be detached and objective | Integral part of the research process |
Assessing quality of outcomes | Direct tests of validity, reliability using statistics | Indirect quality assurance methods of trustworthiness |
MEasures of utility of results | Generalizability | Transferability |
Basic Approaches [edit | edit source]
Quaitative research can appear to be a complex topic which may push many prospective researchers towards the comforts of a quantitative approach, however, the outcomes of performing qualitative research can have equally important ramifications. After all patients are more than a disease or just 'another number' on a waiting list, they are people and are the reason many people are in the healthcare profession; their experience is vitally important. Ultimately qualitative research attempts to bridge between scientific findings and clinical practice with patient interaction.
The table below gives a brief overview of the central identidy and themes of qualitative research and data collection methods:
Types of Approach | Defining Features | Data Collection Implications |
---|---|---|
Phenomenology |
|
|
Ethnography |
|
|
Inductive Thematic Analysis |
|
|
Grounded Theory |
|
|
Case Study |
|
|
Discourse/Conversation Analysis |
|
|
Narrative Analysis |
|
|
Mixed Methods |
|
|
Elements of Qualitative Research[edit | edit source]
Research Question[edit | edit source]
Ethics[edit | edit source]
As with quantitative research there are ethical standards which need to be upheld when performing qualitaive research. The starting point of ethical concerns are the 4 principles of Beauchamp and Childress[7]:
- Autonomy; respecting the rights of the individual i.e allowing the right to withdraw, full disclosure on the aims and involvement of the research and anonymity, consent and confidentiality
- Beneficience; doing good from the results of the research
- Non-maleficience; not doing harm to the patients be it physical, psychological or emotional
- Justice; being euqal, fair and responsible
Example of non-ethical studies are the 'Little Albert Study'[8], the Milgram study about obedience[9], Harlow's monkey experiment[10] and Zimbardo's prison experiment[11].
It is important to consider that asking a person about their thoughts and feelings about an experience may be traumatic or emotionally distressing and care needs to be taken when asking these questions. It may require a talking-therapy aftercare service to be in place to address these concerns. It is also important to remember that the emotions or stress may arise after the research has finished.
With qualitative research it is vital to consider confidentiality you could potentially have thousands of words typed from a conversation you have had with a participant, potentially containing sensitive information so password protecting document and keeping them under lock-and-key is essential[12].
Prior to conducting research ethical approval will need to be granted by a Local Research Ethical Committee (LREC). This may contain 8-12 individuals from a wide range of professions, ages and experience who are separate from, and not involved in, the study in question. Universities and research centres will have their own research committees. If a study involves any of the following ehtical approval will be needed[13].
- The collection of personal information
- Video or audio recording
- Observation of individuals or groups
- Collections of tissue of any kind
- Deception
- invasive procedures
- Chldren
- Anyone not anble to provide consent
- Any procedure which may cause distress (including inadvertently)
- Any other ethical issue
Sampling[edit | edit source]
Sampling in qualitative is integrally different to quantitative research sampling. This is explained in the following subheadings.
Size[edit | edit source]
Sometimes less is more. Quantitative data is focussed on generalizability and subsequently the more participants the better. This may be 1000's of participants to 100,000's however in qualitative research all that is needed is enough participants to answer the research question. More participants may be recruited half-way through the study or until common themes or answer reoccur (Data Saturation), this may only take 20 participants. Another condieration is the sheer amount of time and effort required to thoroughly analysis and manage qualitative data, so this factor may be limiting to the scope of the study[5].
Sampling Strategies[edit | edit source]
Convenience sample is the least rigourous technique in qualitative research, essentially it is involving the most accessible subjects. Although being the least rigurous it is most cost effective financially and in terms of effort and time demans. It may lack credibility so a more thoughtful and thourough method is needed[5]
Judgement/Purposeful sampling is the most common sampling technique. The researcher seeks out participants who will answer the research question the most effectively. It may be beneficial to include a narrow or broad sample based on intellect, geographical location, gender, age, experience or beliefs.Participants may also be able to suggest other participants who have had similar experiences which further the sample sizze, this is known as snowball sampling[5].
Theoretical Sampling necessitates building interpretative theories from the emerging data and selecting a new sample to elaborate on the new theories may be needed. This sample is ever changing until the research questions are answered[5].
Data Collection Methods[edit | edit source]
Data Analysis[edit | edit source]
Results and Write up[edit | edit source]
Critiquing Qualitative Research[edit | edit source]
Critiquing research is integral to providing the best possible interventions in healthcare.
Glossary[edit | edit source]
Phenomenology - Phenomenology is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. The central structure of an experience is its intentionality, its being directed toward something, as it is an experience of or about some object. An experience is directed toward an object by virtue of its content or meaning (which represents the object) together with appropriate enabling conditions[14].
Ethnography - this term traditionally refers to a practice in which researchers spend long periods living within a culture in order to study it. The term has been adopted within qualitative market research to describe occasions where researchers spend time - hours, days or weeks - observing and/or interacting with participants in areas of their everyday lives. This contrasts with interview-based research in which interaction with respondents is limited to a conventional interview or group discussion format, is more limited in time, and often takes place outside the participant's own environment[15]
Inductive Theme Analysis - .Thematic analysis is used in qualitative research and focuses on examining themes within data.[3] This method emphasizes organization and rich description of the data set. Thematic analysis goes beyond simply counting phrases or words in a text and moves on to identifying implicit and explicit ideas within the data[16] Grounded Theory - All research is "grounded" in data, but few studies produce a "grounded theory." Grounded Theory is an inductive methodology. Although many call Grounded Theory a qualitative method, it is not. It is a general method. It is the systematic generation of theory from systematic research. It is a set of rigorous research procedures leading to the emergence of conceptual categories. These concepts/categories are related to each other as a theoretical explanation of the action(s) that continually resolves the main concern of the participants in a substantive area. Grounded Theory can be used with either qualitative or quantitative data[17].
Discourse Analysis - Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use or any significant semiotic event[18].
Narrative Analysis -
Holistic - Characterized by the belief that the parts of something are intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole[19]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Merriam, S. (2009:13). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, fckLRCA: Jossey-Bass.
- ↑ Parkinson, G., &amp;amp;amp; Drislane, R. (2011). Qualitative research. In Online dictionary of the social fckLRsciences. [ONLINE] accessed on 15/11/2014 Found at http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl
- ↑ Denzin, N., &amp;amp;amp; Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
- ↑ Nkwi, P., Nyamongo, I., &amp;amp;amp; Ryan, G. (2001). Field research into socio-cultural issues: Methodological fckLRguidelines. Yaounde, Cameroon, Africa: International Center for Applied Social Sciences, Research, and Training/UNFPA
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Marshall M. Sampling for Qualitative Research. Family Practice. 1996;13(6):1996.
- ↑ Guest, G. Namey E. Mitchell M. Collecting Qualitative Data. A Field Manual for Applied Research. 2013:10 . Sage Publications, Inc.
- ↑ Tom Beauchamp and Jim Childress (1983), Principals of biomedical ethics (2nd ed) Oxford: Oxford University Press
- ↑ Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), pp. 1–14.
- ↑ Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378
- ↑ Harlow, H. F. & Zimmermann, R. R. (1958). The development of affective responsiveness in infant monkeys. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 102,501 -509.
- ↑ Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973) A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Review, 30, 4-17.
- ↑ Rocha S (2004) ‘Has anyone said “ethics”? “Safety” of beneficiaries? Some considerations about info gathering in the field’, Analysis and Advocacy Unit, MSF B
- ↑ O'Kane (ed) Getting Started in Research and Audit. The British Dietetic Association. 1998:65
- ↑ Phenomenology. Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [ONLINE] accessed from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/#1 [15/11/2014]
- ↑ Ethnography. The Association for Qualitative Research. [ONLINE. Accessed from http://www.aqr.org.uk/glossary/ethnography [15/11/2014]
- ↑ Guest, Greg; MacQueen, Namey (2012). "Introduction to Thematic Analysis". Applied Thematic Analysis
- ↑ What is grounded theory? The Grounded Theory Institute. [ONLINE] accessed from http://www.groundedtheory.com/what-is-gt.aspx [15/11/2014]
- ↑ Structure of Discourse. Yatsko's Computational Linguistics LAboratory. [ONLNE] http://yatsko.zohosites.com/integrational-discourse-analysis-conception.html [15/11/2014]
- ↑ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/holistic