When refering to evidence in academic writing, you should always try to reference the primary (original) source. That is usually the journal article where the information was first stated. In most cases Physiopedia articles are a secondary source and so should not be used as references. Physiopedia articles are best used to find the original sources of information (see the references list at the bottom of the article).
If you believe that this Physiopedia article is the primary source for the information you are refering to, you can use the button below to access a related citation statement.
Taping and strapping are fundamental techniques in sports physiotherapy. The primary approaches, rigid taping, elastic taping, and strapping, differ in stiffness, wear duration, cost, application complexity, and clinical indication. Rigid methods restrict joint motion or offload targeted tissues, whereas elastic tape primarily provides sensory feedback and comfort. Strapping redistributes load and offers compression through user-manageable applications. This module addresses the practical implementation of these techniques, including material selection, skin preparation, application procedures, and safe removal. Proper execution is essential to optimise clinical outcomes.
As a general guideline, if a postural or biomechanical impairment can be manually corrected without excessive force, these modalities can effectively maintain and reinforce therapeutic gains. Selection of the appropriate modality should be based on the targeted anatomical area, required stabilisation, necessary degree of correction, duration of wear, cost considerations, and patient compliance. Techniques should be tailored individually, as equivalent therapeutic goals can often be achieved using different taping materials and application methods.
Rigid Taping Method
Non-elastic taping methods, including traditional rigid athletic taping, McConnell taping, and Mulligan taping, are designed to provide mechanical stability, align joints, and limit excessive movement. These approaches can be applied individually or combined depending on the specific clinical objectives. Rigid tape is the stiffest available option with minimal stretch under load, giving it a distinct mechanical effect. It is primarily utilised to restrict range of motion, offload irritated soft tissues, and support unstable joints during acute protection or return-to-play phases. However, because the tape and adhesive loosen with movement, its physical restrictive capacity declines during exercise, meaning sensory input and proprioceptive feedback also play significant roles in its therapeutic outcomes.
Assessment and Documentation for Rigid Taping
To select the most effective rigid taping application, clinicians should start with a comprehensive clinical evaluation to identify the root causes and contributing factors of a patient's symptoms. A thorough grasp of functional anatomy and biomechanics is vital, as the applied tape must facilitate intentional movement, offer structural support, or strategically limit biomechanical stress during athletic activity. Aligning rigid taping methods with targeted clinical objectives, such as pain management, joint stabilisation, tissue offloading, or enhanced proprioceptive feedback, allows clinicians to optimise treatment outcomes and facilitate a safe return to sport.
To comply with clinical protocol and best practices guidelines, clinician should:
• Reassess: Evaluate the patient's condition following rigid tape application to measure immediate outcomes, utilising objective tests whenever feasible.
• Document: Record baseline data and continuous outcome measures for ongoing comparison. Relevant metrics may include pain intensity, active range of motion, progression angles, and functional performance indicators such as speed.
• Educate: Instruct the patient on proper tape care protocols and prescribe an appropriate wear schedule.
Materials for Rigid Taping Technique
Cover-roll and Rigid Tape
Rigid taping technique depends on a small set of materials, each with a clear purpose.
Hypafix or Cover-roll underwrap tape is a thin tape that protects the skin. It helps improve rigid tape adhesion and can also reduce the likelihood of skin reactions caused by the tape. Some clinicians apply it throughout the taped area, while others restrict it to high-friction sites. Pre-tape adherent spray improves grip on the skin. The rigid tape itself is commonly 38 millimetres (1.5 inches) wide for large joints, and narrower, around 12 to 25 millimetres (0.5-1 inch), for fingers and thumbs. Heel and lace pads are small foam or gel pieces placed over the Achilles tendon and the front of the ankle to prevent blistering and irritation. Blunt-tipped bandage scissors or tape cutters are needed for safe tape cutting and removal.
Skin Preparation for Rigid Taping
Poor adhesion is the main reason tape fails early, so skin should be well prepared for the tape application. The skin should be clean, dry and free of oils and lotions. Where hair interferes with adhesion, it can be shaved or clipped, provided the athlete agrees and the sport permits. Before starting, clinician must check for cuts, rashes and signs of infection, because when present, the taping would be contraindicated. If adherent spray is used, it must be allowed to dry fully before applying tape.
Clinical tip: Milk of magnesia may be applied as a protective covering under the area to be taped. To apply it, wet small piece of cotton or gauze with milk of magnesia, apply the product on the area to be taped, allow the liquid to dry, and remove excess powder prior to taping However, milk of magnesia is not FDA approved for external use. It contaons magnesium hydroxide, and you must check if patient is not allergic to its content.
Components of Rigid Tape
Most rigid taping techniques combine the same few components in different arrangements.
Anchors are strips applied around the limb, which serves as the foundational base strip. They create a stable attachment zone for subsequent support applications, such as stirrups, heel locks, or figures-of-eight, ensuring they hold securely without digging into soft tissues or compromising circulation. Anchors should be applied with little tension, because excessive tension at these points can restrict circulation.
Stirrups run under the heel and up each side of the leg. They resist side-to-side motion and are therefore the key component for controlling ankle inversion.
Horseshoes run around the heel and across the front of the ankle, securing the stirrups and adding stability.
Heel locks are diagonal strips that pass around the back of the heel and across the front of the ankle, controlling subtalar motion and holding the foot in position.
Figure-of-eights cross the front of the ankle and loop around the foot and leg, adding support for plantarflexion, dorsiflexion and rotation, stabilising ligaments, and boosting joint awareness.
Closing strips finish the application and hold down the ends of earlier strips.
Rigid Tape Application Principles
Several principles apply whichever technique the clinician uses. The first principle is joint position. The joint should be held in the position that requires support. For the ankle this is usually neutral dorsiflexion with slight eversion for lateral support. Taping in plantarflexion leaves the ankle unprotected once it returns to neutral.
The second principle is to follow the contours of the body. Tearing the tape rather than cutting it where possible produces edges that conform better. Avoid pulling tape straight across a concave surface, and let it lie naturally. Wrinkles and gaps cause skin irritation and create weak points, so they should be avoided.
The third is use of tension. Tension belongs on the strips that provide support, and anchors should carry little or no tension.
Finally, always check circulation and sensation after application. Assess capillary refill, colour and warmth, and ask about numbness or tingling. Then ask the athlete to move and to test the functions the sport requires before leaving the treatment area.
Rigid taping to limit wrist extension
Rigid taping for postural correction
Rigid taping for patella support
Rigid Tape Removal
Removal is part of the technique and should be done with the same care as application. Cut the tape with blunt-tipped scissors along the side of the limb, away from bony prominences. Peel it slowly and parallel to the skin, supporting the skin with your other hand. Peeling in the direction of hair growth is usually more comfortable, and adhesive remover can help where the tape resists. Afterwards, inspect the skin and advise the athlete to moisturise the area. This matters most for athletes who use tape daily.
Elastic Taping Method
Kinesio Taping Method (currently Kinesio Medical Taping), kinesiology or elastic taping, also known as neuro-proprioceptive taping, is a widely used clinical technique believed to enhance proprioception. It offers various theoretical benefits, such as mimicking skin elasticity, supporting sensory pathways, improving muscle function, and encouraging motor activity.
Additionally, it is thought to promote joint stability, align posture naturally, and reduce pain via neurological suppression.
Some leagues and competitions restrict tape colour, placement or amount, and you need to check these in advance.
Materials
Kinesio Tex Tape
Developed by Dr Kenzo Kase, the original Kinesio Tex Tape involves materials capable of stretching along their longitudinal axis up to 130% to 140% of their resting length. It features a 100% acrylic, heat-sensitive adhesive applied typically with 10% paper-off tension, containing no added medication or latex. Designed for extended wear over several days, patients can comfortably shower with the tape applied. Various tape formulations serve specific clinical needs: Classic variants provide traditional dynamic support; Gold FP features a wave-pattern adhesive designed to mimic human touch while enhancing breathability and micro-stimulation to the skin; and Light Touch options use a milder adhesive tailored for sensitive skin, poediatric populations, or frail older patients.
Kinesio Tex Tapes come in a variety of colours, though tan is the most commonly utilised. Although each colour of Kinesio Tex Tape is assigned specific properties based on colour therapy, with red and pink associated with heat and energy, blue with cooling and calming effects, and black introduced without thermal properties per athlete requests, clinical evidence does not support the superiority of any single colour.
Clinical tip: Because certain competitions and leagues enforce restrictions regarding the colour, placement, or quantity of tape allowed, these rules should be verified in advance.
Kinesiology Tapes
Kinesiology tape is a longitudinally stretchable adhesive tape featuring a textile fiber backing coated with acrylic adhesive. While cotton serves as the primary base material, certain varieties utilise a thinner, more elastic rayon fabric.
Standard rolls typically measure 5 meters long by 5 centimeters wide and are available in a wide variety of colours and patterns. Variations in tape design exist based on dimensions, elasticity, dyes, adhesive quality, and carrier fabric. Additional standard width options include 2.5 cm, 3.75 cm, 7.5 cm, and 10 cm.
Besides continuous rolls sold by the meter, pre-cut options are available, allowing single strips to be easily detached by hand without requiring scissors or other tools.
Assessment and Documentation for Elastic Taping
Practitioners must establish a clear clinical objective, screen for safety, and record measurable baseline outcomes to determine appropriate application and evaluate efficacy. Explicit goals and functional measures facilitate informed consent and ensure therapy continues only when clear patient benefit is demonstrated.
Clinical Reasoning and Screening
The clinical reasoning process begins with a safety screen. Inspect the skin for lesions, rashes, or moisture, and review the patient’s history regarding adhesive sensitivities. When skin integrity is uncertain, perform a 24-hour forearm patch test using a small piece of tape. All findings must align with local profession al standards, regulatory mandates, and manufacturer guidelines.
Hypothesis and Assessment Execution
Identifying the involved anatomical structures and dysfunctional movement patterns requires standardised, reproducible testing. During the assessment and reassessment, clinician should maintain consistent patient's positioning, anatomical landmarks, and equipment across visits. Practitioner must choose targeted functional tests that directly link to the primary goal. Re-evaluations should occur immediately post-application to check comfort and movement, followed by a reassessment after the planned wear duration of two to five days.
Documentation and Safety Management
Comprehensive documentation ensures clinical continuity and accountability. Every entry should record the patient's baseline measurements, target goals, application techniques, tape specifications, tension, and body position during taping. Additionally, clinicians must document patient care instructions, including proper removal procedures and warning signs of adverse reactions. If two to three applications offer no measurable improvement, intervention should stop in favour of re-evaluating the underlying diagnosis.
Skin Preparation for Elastic Taping
Prior to tape application, the patient's skin must be clean, dry, and free of oils. Spray adherent may be applied exclusively to the anchors and ends. If hair needs to be trimmed, the clippers must be properly sterilised before use. Milk of magnesia can be applied as a protective covering under the area to be taped.
Maintaining good hygiene minimises the risk of skin irritation. Clinician should advise the patient to follow their standard washing routine and gently pat the tape dry following a bath or shower.
Components of Elastic Tape
Components of elastic tape include the following:
Anchor: The starting portion of the tape, applied without any tension. To dissipate tension effectively, the length of the anchor increases relative to the amount of tension applied to the base.
Base: The central segment positioned over the target area. Tension applied here varies according to the desired mechanism of action:
Baseline / gentle tension: A 10% to 15% "paper-off" stretch provides mild sensory input while minimising mechanical restriction.
Neuromuscular facilitation: A slight to moderate stretch of roughly 25% to 35% is used for muscle activation.
Mechanical and structural correction: Higher tension levels, ranging from 50% to 100% stretch, are reserved for functional space correction or joint repositioning.
End: The final section following the base, placed onto the skin with zero tension.
Clinical note: There is little evidence that specific tension levels produce different physiological effects, so choose the lowest tension that the athlete finds comfortable and helpful.
Elastic Tape Application Principles
In elastic taping applications, a variety of strip configurations are used depending on the specific therapeutic goal, including I, X, Y, Fan, and Web cuts, with the "I" and "Y" strips being the most widely utilised in clinical practice. The "Y" cut is particularly useful for surrounding muscle bellies or facilitating/inhibiting specific muscle groups, while the straight "I" strip targets localised pain, ligamentous support, or direct structural cueing. For oedema and swelling management, specialised configurations such as the Fan cut, Basketweave, and Snowflake patterns are selected to create pressure gradients that promote lymphatic drainage and fluid resorption across affected tissues.
Elastic tape cuts: I, Y, Fan, Web cut and I strip with anchors used for fingers or toes
To ensure proper integration with bodily movement and achieve optimal tape-skin contact, the target joint is actively or passively taken through a full, uninhibited range of motion prior to completing the application process. This movement allows the tape to adapt dynamically to functional tissue changes and verifies that the anchors remain free of tension across all motion boundaries.
Once applied, the surface of the tape needs to be gently rubbed to activate its heat-sensitive adhesive. Inform the athlete to avoid water and heavy exercise for about 20 to 30 minutes if possible, as moisture can weaken the adhesive bond.
The tape can be worn for three to five days.
Clinical note: Remove the tape if there is itching, redness or discomfort and wash the area thorougly to remove adhesive.
Elastic taping for pectoralis major. Y-strip used for insertion-to-origin application for muscle inhibition
Elastic taping for wrist extension. I-strip with diamond-shaped holes for anchoring the tape between the fingers.
Elastic taping for oedema. Fan cut helps drain fluid away from the knee joint. Two colours of tape are used to visualise overlapping tape.
Elastic Tape Removal
Remove tape slowly, in the direction of hair growth, pressing the skin down as you peel. Use oil or adhesive remover if needed. This matters particularly in athletes with sensitive skin.
Strapping and Wrapping Techniques
Strapping and wrapping are non-adhesive methods of providing support, compression and proprioceptive feedback. Unlike elastic or rigid taping, they use reusable devices such as Fibrofoam wraps, patellar bands and compression sleeves. They are applied directly over the skin or clothing, can be adjusted quickly, and are easy for athletes to apply themselves. This makes them well suited to training, rehabilitation and return-to-play.
Materials: Fibrofoam
Fibrofoam combines an open-celled, elastomeric, non-latex foam with specially engineered fabrics. The material is breathable, wicks away perspiration, resists migration and provides compression. It also optimizes hot and cold therapy, accepts Velcro hooks and is washable (hand wash, dry overnight). It is sold in rolls or by the yard, allowing custom wraps with Velcro.
Three main types differ in elasticity:
ProWrap: Offers the most strength with minimal elasticity. It is an excellent strapping material for compression wraps and customized supports.
Super Wrap: Has a high degree of multidirectional elasticity with adjustable compression and support. It is used mainly for upper extremity control, such as limiting shoulder abduction.
Medi Wrap: Provides medium two-directional stretch. It suits the wrist, thumb and fingers, and is also used for patellar and ankle stability.
Reusable Straps and Bands
These are applied directly to the limb, for example around the patellar tendon or the forearm. They are made from elastic or semi-rigid materials and fasten with Velcro. Stiffness ranges from low to moderate depending on the product, and many offer degree-dependent elasticity.
Application Examples
Patellar tendon straps: These target patellar tendinopathy (jumper's knee). They apply focused pressure to the tendon just below the kneecap, changing its angle of insertion and reducing strain. This eases pain during loading and impact activities such as jumping and running.
Counterforce bands: Used for lateral or medial epicondylalgia (tennis or golfer's elbow), these non-elastic or semi-rigid bands encircle the proximal forearm. They compress the muscle bellies, absorb shock and limit maximal contraction force, protecting the tendinous insertion from further irritation.
Cho-Pat-style straps: These apply dynamic pressure above and below a joint such as the patella or Achilles tendon. The surrounding compression helps stabilize tracking, dissipate repetitive forces across tendon fibers and improve alignment during movement.
Wrist and thumb supports: These range from flexible compressive wraps to rigid splints with malleable stays. They restrict end-range motion, relieve strain on inflamed tendon sheaths (for example in De Quervain's tenosynovitis) and support weak carpal structures during functional tasks.
Compression sleeves: Worn over the calf, knee or elbow, they provide uniform pressure across the segment. They promote venous return and local circulation, reduce soft tissue vibration and enhance neuromuscular awareness and proprioceptive feedback during recovery or exertion.
Shoulder and hip straps: These wraps fit around the shoulder girdle or pelvis. They offer passive resistance to extreme ranges of motion and give continuous tactile feedback that cues posture, dynamic stability and controlled movement.
Practical Considerations
Choose the material by the support needed: rigid for stability, elastic for compression and freedom of movement.
Check skin condition, circulation and sensation before and after application.
Avoid excessive tension, which can cause numbness, tingling or discoloration.
Reassess function and symptoms, and adjust fit as swelling changes.
Clean reusable devices regularly and replace them when they lose elasticity or Velcro grip.
Key Points
Strapping and wrapping are cost-effective, reusable and adjustable alternatives to adhesive taping. They work best as part of a broader program that includes exercise, load management and progressive return to sport.
