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Medication Considerations for Rehabilitation

Original Editor - Stacy Schiurring

Top Contributors - Stacy Schiurring and Jess Bell  

Medications and Rehabilitation Introduction

As rehabilitation professionals increasingly gain direct access to patients (i.e., delivering skilled care without requiring a physician’s referral), their role is evolving to resemble that of a primary care provider in many settings. This shift puts therapists in a unique position: often, they are the only healthcare provider consistently observing the patient over time, making them the first to notice subtle changes in presentation or behaviour. Given this responsibility, it is essential that rehabilitation professionals possess a foundational understanding of common medications their patients may be taking.

Medication use is highly prevalent in rehabilitation patient populations. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), up to 35% of patients receiving physiotherapy for back pain or osteoarthritis are prescribed opioid pain medications,[1] and around 90% of older adults take at least one prescription drug.[2] Polypharmacy, or the concurrent use of five or more medications, is becoming increasingly common and raises the risk of adverse drug interactions.[3] Conditions frequently encountered in rehabilitation, such as stroke, osteoarthritis, and post-surgical recovery, are often managed with multiple medications. Even over-the-counter drugs can contribute to dangerous interactions. By understanding how medications affect physiology and function, rehabilitation professionals can promote safer, more effective care and serve as critical partners in medication monitoring and referrals.

This page provides an overview of medications commonly encountered in rehabilitation practice. It is not an exhaustive list and practising therapists are encouraged to perform further in-depth research on medications as warranted.

Pain Medications

Pain medications are widely encountered in rehabilitation. A broad range of pain medications is available, and the World Health Organization's (WHO) Analgesic Ladder serves as a useful framework to better understand this variety. Originally developed for managing cancer-related pain, the ladder is now applied more broadly to various pain conditions. It consists of three steps, with each step representing increasing levels of medication strength. The ladder suggests moving up the steps as needed, but it is not always necessary to start at the bottom. The goal is to find the most effective pain relief with the least amount of side effects. Each step also includes the possibility of adding adjuvants as needed; adjuvants are medications that can enhance the pain medication’s effect or address other pain-related issues, such as neuropathic pain or anxiety.[4]

  1. Step 1 medications are for the treatment of “mild pain" and include non-opioid analgesics like acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
  2. Step 2 medications are for the treatment of “moderate pain” and include weak opioids (e.g., hydrocodone, codeine, tramadol)
  3. Step 3 medications are for “severe pain” and include strong opioids (e.g., morphine, methadone, fentanyl, oxycodone)


The following optional video summarises the WHO Analgesic Ladder. Please note that this is a modified version of the WHO Analgesic Ladder. It has an extra step for non-pharmacological interventions, which includes rehabilitation interventions.

[5]

Step 1 Pain Medications

Aspirin

Aspirin is commonly used in adults to treat inflammation, pain, and fever. However, it is contraindicated in children due to the risk of Reye Syndrome, a rare but serious condition. It is generally not recommended for managing chronic pain, as prolonged or high-dose use can lead to gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, ulceration, and tinnitus.[6]

Aspirin also has a wide range of potential drug interactions. These include interactions with NSAIDs, anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, corticosteroids, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), methotrexate[7] (an immunosuppressant used for conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and some cancers), ACE inhibitors, diuretics, and alcohol. Most of these interactions increase the risk of GI complications or bleeding. Notably, aspirin may also reduce the effectiveness of ACE inhibitors, particularly in patients with heart failure, potentially leading to poorer blood pressure control.[8] This population may therefore require closer monitoring of vital signs, especially during physically demanding activities.[6]

Acetaminophen

Acetaminophen, known by the trade name Tylenol®, is commonly used to treat mild pain. Unlike aspirin, it does not inhibit prostaglandin activity, meaning it does not reduce inflammation, but it avoids impairing platelet function. As a result, acetaminophen does not carry the same risks of GI bleeding or ulceration associated with aspirin use.[9]

The primary concern with acetaminophen is the risk of liver damage, particularly in the case of overdose. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), individuals who consume alcohol regularly, use acetaminophen long-term, or have liver disease should limit their daily intake to 2,000–3,000 mg. For short-term use in healthy adults, up to 4,000 mg per day is generally considered safe.[10]

Many overdoses occur accidentally, as patients often do not realise that acetaminophen is a common ingredient in over 600 over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription medications.[11] Long-term users often include individuals managing chronic musculoskeletal pain or persistent orthopaedic conditions. Education for these patients is, therefore, important. On medication labels, acetaminophen may also appear as APAP, Acetamin-oph, Acetamin-op, Acetamin, or Acetam. Signs of overdose include nausea, vomiting, or loss of appetite, abdominal pain (especially in the upper right quadrant), confusion or drowsiness, yellowing of the skin or eyes, and dark urine. Acetaminophen overdose is a medical emergency and requires immediate professional evaluation.[12]

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and Motrin®, are widely used for managing acute or chronic nociceptive pain, inflammation, and fever. While effective, they come with significant side effects[13] that require close monitoring. One major concern is GI irritation and bleeding, with symptoms including abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, black stools, or vomiting blood. These symptoms can limit a patient's tolerance for therapy, while chronic blood loss may present as unexplained fatigue or dizziness secondary to anaemia. NSAIDs are also linked to oesophagitis, which may cause dysphagia.[14]

NSAIDs may impair soft tissue healing by dampening the natural inflammatory response, potentially delaying recovery from wounds, muscle or tendon injuries, and even reducing bone healing. They also inhibit platelet aggregation, increasing the risk of bleeding and bruising, which is an important consideration for manual therapy, dry needling, or interventions with tissue stress. These risks are amplified when NSAIDs are taken alongside other medications like corticosteroids or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).[15][16]

Renal complications are another concern. NSAIDs reduce kidney perfusion, particularly in dehydrated individuals or those taking ACE inhibitors or diuretics. Signs of kidney dysfunction include peripheral oedema, weight gain, reduced urine output, and elevated blood pressure. Associated symptoms, including fatigue, might be mistakenly attributed to rehabilitation efforts rather than renal strain.[17]

Cardiovascular and pulmonary risks also increase with NSAID use, particularly in patients with heart failure, hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, or chronic kidney disease. Long-term or high-dose use can elevate the risk of thrombotic events such as myocardial infarction or stroke. Warning signs include fatigue, dyspnoea, oedema, chest pain, and worsening hypertension.[13]

Additionally, NSAIDs can exacerbate symptoms in patients with NSAID-sensitive asthma, potentially triggering bronchospasm. Rehabilitation practitioners should monitor these individuals closely, especially during exertion, and modify interventions to avoid excessive cardiovascular or respiratory strain.[13]

Step 2 and Step 3 Pain Medications

Step 2 pain medications, often referred to as "weak opioids," include drugs such as hydrocodone (sold under trade names Norco®, Vicodin®, and Lortab®), tramadol (Ultracet®), and codeine.[4] A key point to note is that these medications typically contain acetaminophen, which increases the risk of unintentional overdose and potential liver toxicity, especially when patients are unaware of acetaminophen’s presence in multiple formulations.

Step 3 pain medications, known as "potent opioids," are used for managing severe pain and include morphine, methadone, fentanyl, hydromorphone (Dilaudid®), and oxycodone (commonly combined with acetaminophen under the trade name Percocet®).[4] These stronger opioids are associated with higher risks of side effects, such as sedation, respiratory depression, dependence, and constipation. Careful monitoring and appropriate patient education are essential when these medications are used in the rehabilitation setting.

Opioids

Opioids are medications used to manage moderate to severe pain, commonly prescribed following surgery, injury, or for chronic musculoskeletal and pain-related conditions. The term opiates refers specifically to naturally derived substances from the opium poppy, while opioids include both synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs with similar actions. The term narcotic may be used to describe either group. While effective for pain relief, opioids affect multiple body systems and carry a range of significant side effects, which rehabilitation professionals must be aware of.[18]

From a central nervous system (CNS) perspective, opioids can lead to sedation, drowsiness, and cognitive impairment, often resulting in slowed reaction times, difficulty following instructions, or impaired concentration. This may hinder learning new motor skills or reduce safety awareness. Common side effects also include dizziness and poor coordination, which increase fall risk, particularly in older adults. Mood changes, such as euphoria, depression, or irritability, can influence motivation and engagement in therapy, while opioid-induced hyperalgesia may cause exaggerated pain responses, reducing tolerance for physical touch or manual techniques.

Opioids can have a range of cardiovascular and pulmonary effects, including orthostatic hypotension, which may cause lightheadedness and increased fall risk. In rare cases, opioids can lead to bradycardia or arrhythmias, necessitating careful monitoring during exercise. One of the most serious risks is respiratory depression, which, although more common in acute settings, may limit a patient’s tolerance for aerobic activity and require adjustments in rehabilitation intensity. Patients may report dyspnoea or desaturation even during low-level activity.

GI side effects are also prevalent and include constipation, nausea, and vomiting—issues that not only cause discomfort but can interfere with therapy participation. Dry mouth, while seemingly minor, can affect communication and contribute to dehydration.

Functionally, opioids may lead to muscle weakness, fatigue, and balance issues, all of which can slow rehabilitation progress. Patients might require more frequent rest, shorter sessions, or show reduced engagement due to general malaise.

Finally, tolerance, dependence, and addiction are critical concerns. This is particularly evident in North America, where widespread misuse has led to an ongoing public health crisis since the 1990s. The potential for physical dependence and withdrawal underscores the importance of interdisciplinary coordination in managing pain safely, especially in patients with risk factors for addiction.[18][19]

Pain Adjuvant Medication

Gabapentin, marketed under the trade name Neurontin®, is a commonly prescribed adjuvant medication for pain management. It is particularly effective in treating neuropathic pain conditions, such as diabetic neuropathy, post-herpetic neuralgia (nerve pain following shingles), fibromyalgia, and other chronic pain syndromes. Unlike opioids, gabapentin is not addictive; however, it must be tapered gradually to avoid withdrawal symptoms.

While beneficial for certain pain conditions, gabapentin is associated with a broad range of potential side effects that can significantly impact rehabilitation. These include dizziness, drowsiness, fatigue, lethargy, memory difficulties, confusion, and emotional changes, such as anxiety or depression. Physical symptoms may include muscle weakness, tremors, unsteady gait, GI upset (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea), and peripheral oedema. Given this side effect profile, patients taking gabapentin may experience reduced stamina, impaired coordination, and mood fluctuations, all of which can interfere with therapy participation, safety, and overall rehabilitation outcomes. Close monitoring and tailored intervention plans should be considered for these individuals.[20][21]

Muscle Relaxants

Muscle relaxants are a class of medications used to alleviate muscle tension, stiffness, and pain associated with muscle spasms or spasticity. They function either centrally (by acting on the brain or spinal cord) or peripherally (by directly affecting muscle fibres).[22]

Centrally acting muscle relaxants

Cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril®) is often prescribed for acute musculoskeletal pain, such as low back pain or whiplash. Common side effects include sedation, dizziness, blurred vision, and cognitive slowing, particularly in older adults. It may also lower seizure thresholds, so extra precautions are advised for patients with a seizure history.[23]

Carisoprodol (Soma®) is another short-term option for acute muscle pain, but it carries risks of sedation, particularly when combined with alcohol or opioids, and has abuse and dependency potential.[24]

Metaxalone (Skelaxin®) is used for acute strain or myofascial pain and is less sedating than other agents, though it may still cause dizziness, nausea, or nervousness.[25]

Methocarbamol (Robaxin®), used for muscle spasm and sometimes for spasticity following spinal cord injury (SCI), may cause drowsiness, hypotension, and bradycardia, especially in IV form. It can also cause harmless urine discolouration.[26]

Baclofen is used to manage spasticity from neurological disorders like multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, stroke, and cerebral palsy. Though effective, it can cause vertigo, fatigue, and muscle weakness. This medication has a risk of severe withdrawal symptoms (including hallucinations, seizures, fever, and rebound spasticity) if abruptly discontinued. Of particular significance for rehabilitation, baclofen use can impair motor performance due to side effects of muscle weakness and hypotonia.[27] This is a big concern in individuals who rely on a certain level of spasticity or muscle tone for mobility or stability; this is a situation where dosing matters, so open communication between the treating therapist and the prescribing medical doctor is important.

Peripherally acting muscle relaxants

Dantrolene (Dantrium®) works directly on skeletal muscle fibres and is used for spasticity in conditions such as cerebral palsy, stroke, and spinal cord injury. However, it can also cause significant muscle weakness, fatigue, and carries a risk of liver toxicity with oral use, requiring regular liver function monitoring. [28]

Botulinum toxin (Botox®) is injected into overactive muscles to produce temporary, localised paralysis by blocking nerve signals. It is widely used for focal spasticity from stroke, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, or cerebral palsy, and for conditions such as dystonia and chronic migraine. Side effects may include local weakness and flu-like symptoms. With cervical injections, there is the risk of potential spread, which could lead to dysphagia or respiratory difficulty. The full therapeutic effect can take 10–14 days to appear and usually lasts around 3–4 months, though this can vary based on dosage, muscle size, and individual response. Timing therapy around the injection’s peak efficacy is important for optimal rehabilitation outcomes.[29]

Antidepressants and Anxiolytics

Antidepressants and anxiolytics are two major classes of medications used in the treatment of mental health conditions, particularly depression and anxiety. While antidepressants are primarily prescribed for depression and often have secondary benefits for anxiety, anxiolytics are specifically aimed at reducing anxiety symptoms, including panic attacks.[30]

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are a commonly prescribed class of antidepressants that also help manage anxiety. They work by increasing serotonin levels in the brain through the inhibition of serotonin reuptake at synapses. This modulation supports mood regulation and stress resilience. Frequently prescribed SSRIs include Fluoxetine (Prozac®) and Sertraline (Zoloft®), among others. Side effects may include headache, dizziness, nausea, sleep disturbances, anxiety or agitation (especially during the early stages of treatment), tremor, and GI upset. There is an increased risk of bleeding, particularly GI, when SSRIs are used in combination with NSAIDs or anticoagulants.[31]

Benzodiazepines, such as Lorazepam (Ativan®) and Diazepam (Valium®), function as central nervous system depressants by enhancing the action of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the brain’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. They are effective in reducing acute anxiety and promoting relaxation, but come with a range of side effects relevant to rehabilitation. These include sedation, drowsiness, respiratory depression, and slowed reaction time, all of which can impair attention, coordination, and safety during therapy. Cognitive effects such as confusion, memory impairment (notably anterograde amnesia), and delirium are particularly concerning in older adults. Physical side effects may also include muscle weakness, lightheadedness (especially in patients on antihypertensives), syncope, and visual disturbances, such as diplopia.[32] These potential impairments may necessitate activity modifications, closer supervision, or fall prevention strategies in therapy settings.

Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Medications

Cardiovascular and blood pressure medications are widely prescribed to manage conditions such as hypertension, heart failure, angina, arrhythmias, and to prevent complications following myocardial infarction (MI). These drugs act on various physiological pathways to control blood pressure, improve cardiac function, and reduce the risk of further cardiovascular damage. Understanding their mechanisms, side effects, and clinical implications is essential in the rehabilitation setting, as they can significantly impact vital signs, exercise tolerance, cognition, and fall risk.[33]

Beta-blockers work by inhibiting β1-adrenergic receptors in the heart, resulting in reduced heart rate, contractility, and cardiac output. Commonly used in hypertension, heart failure, arrhythmias, and post-MI care, their side effects include bradycardia, hypotension, dizziness, fatigue, and orthostatic hypotension. Importantly, they blunt the heart rate response to exercise, making heart rate an unreliable measure of exertion[34]; instead, the Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale should be used to guide therapy intensity.

ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) reduce blood pressure by acting on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, though via different mechanisms. These are often prescribed for hypertension, heart failure, post-MI, and diabetic nephropathy. Their side effects include orthostatic hypotension, fatigue, dizziness, and muscle weakness,[35][36] factors that can reduce tolerance to therapy and increase fall risk.

Calcium channel blockers lower blood pressure and control heart rate by inhibiting calcium influx into cardiac and vascular smooth muscle, promoting vasodilation and reducing myocardial workload. Indications include hypertension, chronic stable angina, arrhythmias, and coronary artery disease. Side effects such as peripheral oedema, bradycardia, hypotension, and fatigue may impact mobility and endurance. This class has numerous drug–drug interactions,[37] so collaboration with pharmacists may be necessary.

Diuretics increase urine output, helping manage fluid overload in hypertension, heart failure, and oedema. While effective, they can cause electrolyte imbalances, dehydration, muscle cramps, and orthostatic hypotension. Frequent urination and fatigue[38] may also reduce patient engagement in therapy. Notably, a 2023 study identified a significant link between diuretic use and increased fall risk in older adults.[39]

Anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin, apixaban) and antiplatelet agents (e.g., aspirin, clopidogrel) are used to prevent clot formation, particularly in conditions like atrial fibrillation, deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism, stroke prevention, and post-stent or MI care. Their primary side effect is an increased risk of bleeding and bruising, even with minor trauma. This has direct implications for manual therapy, dry needling, and fall prevention strategies. These agents may also interact with NSAIDs, necessitating patient education on medication safety.[40]

Statins are prescribed to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular events. While generally well tolerated, they can cause muscle-related side effects, including myopathy and, in rare cases, rhabdomyolysis (a severe and potentially dangerous muscle breakdown).[41] Fatigue and muscle cramps are also common and may limit exercise capacity.[42] Rehabilitation professionals should remain vigilant for signs of muscle damage and consult the prescribing clinician if statin-related myopathy is suspected.

Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids, commonly referred to as steroids (e.g., prednisone), are anti-inflammatory medications frequently used to manage a variety of conditions, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and lupus, respiratory diseases like asthma and COPD, MS exacerbations, and to prevent organ rejection following transplantation. While highly effective in controlling inflammation, corticosteroids have a broad range of side effects that carry important implications for rehabilitation practice.

Musculoskeletal side effects include muscle wasting and steroid-induced myopathy, which can reduce strength and functional capacity. Long-term use can lead to osteoporosis and increased bone fragility, elevating the risk of fractures even with minimal trauma. Delayed wound healing and increased infection risk are also significant concerns, especially following surgery or injury.

Corticosteroids are the most common cause of drug-induced diabetes and can significantly increase insulin resistance in patients with existing diabetes mellitus. Notably, hyperglycaemia can occur within hours of administration, meaning that the timing of therapy interventions is critical.[43]

Diabetes Medications

Diabetes medications are essential for managing blood glucose levels and preventing complications associated with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. These medications fall into several categories, including insulin, oral agents, and injectable non-insulin drugs, each of which works through different mechanisms to reduce blood glucose levels.

For rehabilitation professionals, the primary concern is hypoglycaemia, especially during or after physical activity, which can lower glucose levels further. Symptoms such as shakiness, sweating, confusion, dizziness, and even loss of consciousness may occur, and therapists should be prepared to respond promptly. It is vital to monitor glucose levels regularly, keep a diabetic emergency kit in the clinic, and schedule therapy sessions in a way that aligns with the patient's medication and meal timing.[44]

Anti-Seizure Medications

Anti-seizure medications (also known as anticonvulsants or anti-epileptics) are primarily used to prevent and manage seizures by stabilising electrical activity in the brain. While commonly prescribed for epilepsy and other seizure disorders, these medications are also used to treat neuropathic pain and certain psychiatric conditions, such as bipolar disorder. Due to their influence on the central nervous system, these drugs can have a range of side effects that are highly relevant in the rehabilitation context. Common side effects include headaches, fatigue, sleep disturbances, dizziness, blurred vision, and nausea,[45] as well as mood changes and neurocognitive impairments, such as memory difficulties, slowed processing speed, and issues with attention.[46] These cognitive and emotional effects can reduce a patient's ability to follow instructions, stay motivated, or fully engage in therapy sessions.

Patients on anti-seizure medications often present with balance and gait disturbances or an increased fall risk. As such, rehabilitation professionals should include fall prevention strategies, balance assessments, and cognitive screening as part of routine care for individuals taking these medications.[45]

Parkinson’s Medications

Parkinson’s medications are designed to enhance or restore dopaminergic function in the brain, aiming to alleviate key motor symptoms such as bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor. The most widely used and effective treatment is Levodopa-Carbidopa (also known as L-DOPA). Levodopa is converted into dopamine within the brain, while Carbidopa prevents its breakdown in the periphery, increasing its availability in the central nervous system. This combination significantly improves motor function; however, patients often experience motor fluctuations, or "on-off" periods, during which the drug's effectiveness varies. For optimal results, rehabilitation sessions should be timed to coincide with the patient’s “on” periods, typically peaking about 1 hour after dosing and lasting 4-6 hours. Other possible side effects include orthostatic hypotension, hallucinations, and confusion, which may influence session safety and participation.[47]

Dopamine agonists, often prescribed in the early stages of Parkinson’s or in younger patients, directly stimulate dopamine receptors in the brain. They may be used alone or alongside L-DOPA to extend its benefits. Common side effects include daytime sleepiness, nausea, and orthostatic hypotension, all of which have implications for therapy planning and fall risk.[48]

MAO-B inhibitors and COMT inhibitors (named after the enzymes they block, Monoamine Oxidase B and Catechol-O-Methyltransferase, respectively) are typically used in conjunction with L-DOPA to prolong dopamine activity. These medications can increase the duration and consistency of symptom control but may also lead to side effects such as nausea, insomnia, dyskinesia, and confusion, particularly in older adults.[49]

Resources

Clinical Resources

Natural and herbal medications can also have drug interactions with conventional or allopathic medications. The following website is a useful resource for these complementary medications:


The American Geriatrics Society (AGS) Beers Criteria (2019 update) is a list of medications and medication classes that are considered potentially inappropriate for use in older persons due to their risk of unwanted side effects, drug interactions, risks posed to patients with certain diseases or syndromes, and medications that require adjustment based on a patient's renal function:


The following article provides in-depth information on common drug interactions, including many medications discussed in this reading page:


This article overviews commonly encountered food-drug interactions and describes how diet can affect medication effectiveness:

Optional Additional Reading

The following articles provide more information on rehabilitation professionals and pharmacology:

References

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  2. ↑ Federation of State Boards of Physical Therapy. Medications: Defining the Role and Responsibility of Physical Therapy Practice. Available from: https://www.fsbpt.org/Portals/0/documents/free-resources/WinterForum2017Medications.pdf (accessed 24 May 2025).
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  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Anekar A, Hendrix J, Cascella M. WHO Analgesic Ladder [Internet]. 2023 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554435/
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  22. ↑ NIH National Cancer Institute. Muscle relaxant. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/muscle-relaxant (accessed 24 May 2025).
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  33. ↑ American Heart Association. Types of Blood Pressure Medications. Available from: https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-blood-pressure/changes-you-can-make-to-manage-high-blood-pressure/types-of-blood-pressure-medications (accessed 24 May 2025).
  34. ↑ Farzam K, Jan A. Beta Blockers [Internet]. 2023 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532906/
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  36. ↑ Good RX. ACE Inhibitors vs. ARBs: How Do They Compare for High Blood Pressure?. Available from: https://www.goodrx.com/conditions/hypertension/ace-inhibitors-vs-arbs-whats-the-difference (accessed 24 May 2025).
  37. ↑ McKeever R, Patel P, Hamilton R. Calcium Channel Blockers [Internet]. 2024 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482473/
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  39. ↑ Bai X, Han B, Zhang M, Liu J, Cui Y, Jiang H. The association between diuretics and falls in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Geriatric nursing. 2023 Jul 1;52:106-14.
  40. ↑ Tsoumani ME, Tselepis AD. Antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants: from pharmacology to clinical practice. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2017 Mar 1;23(9):1279-93.
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  42. ↑ Sizar O, Khare S, Patel P, Talati R. Statin Medications [Internet]. 2024 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430940/
  43. ↑ Hodgens A, Sharman T. Corticosteroids [Internet]. 2023 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554612/
  44. ↑ American Heart Association. Diabetes Medications. Available from: https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/diabetes/prevention--treatment-of-diabetes/diabetes-medications (accessed 24 May 2025).
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Subbarao B, Silverman A, Eapen B. Seizure Medications [Internet]. 2023 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482269/
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  47. ↑ Hauser RA, Ellenbogen A, Khanna S, Gupta S, Modi NB. Onset and duration of effect of extended-release carbidopa-levodopa in advanced Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. 2018 Mar 22:839-45.
  48. ↑ ChoivJ, Horner K. Dopamine Agonists [Internet]. 2023 [cited 24/05/2025]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551686/
  49. ↑ Regensburger M, Ip CW, Kohl Z, Schrader C, Urban PP, Kassubek J, Jost WH. Clinical benefit of MAO-B and COMT inhibition in Parkinson’s disease: Practical considerations. Journal of Neural Transmission. 2023 Jun;130(6):847-61.
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