Upper Limb Management in Lower Tetraplegia and Central Cord Syndrome

Original Editor - Ewa Jaraczewska based on the course by Wendy Oelofse

Top Contributors - Ewa Jaraczewska, Jess Bell and Tarina van der Stockt  

Introduction

Upper limb function is key in regaining autonomy for patients with a cervical spinal cord injury. A conservative treatment may transition into a surgical pathway, and the treatment strategy is based on the type of damage present (upper vs lower motor neurone). It includes positioning, splinting, passive and active range of motion, functional training, and training with adaptive equipment to offer the best possible benefit to the individual patient.Prevention must be considered when treatment strategies are selected. Claw hands, contractures, or inadequate closing or opening of the fingers may occur due to lower-level cervical spinal cord injury.This article will discuss upper limb function with lower-level cervical spinal cord injury and its impact on the patient's functional abilities.

C6 Tetraplegia

1. Innervated upper limb muscles
   • Deltoid, biceps, brachialis, brachioradialis (C5 level)
   • Pectoralis (clavicular head only)
   • Supinator
   • Radial wrist extensors (extensor carpi radialis longus and/or brevis)
2. No elbow extension
3. No active movements of fingers or thumbs
4. Functional impact
   • Unable to raise arms above shoulder level without external rotation
   • Potential for tenodesis grip
   • Able to extend the wrist, rotate and adduct the shoulder
   • Improved weight bearing through the upper limbs due to the function of latissimus dorsi and pectoralis

Goals for upper limb(UL) management:

• To prevent upper limb secondary complications, including the development of contractures and deformities.
• To assist with function: optimise independence with activities of daily living (ADLs), including eating, dressing, meal prep, grooming, bladder and bowel programme.
• To gain community integration through learning transfers with assistance and independent wheelchair propulsion

Factors effecting outcomes:

• Patient's motivation
• Patient's physique
• Patient's psychosocial status
• Complications of spinal cord injury

Prevention of Development of UL Deformities

Prevention of Contracture in the Fingers

A boxing glove:

• Maintains range of motion
• Prevents contractures in the fingers
• Encourages correct positioning for the tenodesis grasp
• Has a positive effect on oedema management

Prevention of Contracture in the Elbow

• Teach the patient to maintain elbow extension while flexing the shoulders during functional tasks of mat activities and bed mobility
• Teach the patient to contract the anterior deltoid and the upper fibres of the pectoralis major and relax the biceps
• Teach the patient to lock the elbow by externally rotating the shoulders, extending the elbow and the wrist, and supinating the forearm.

Prevention of Development of UL Pain

Risk factors:

• Females more often than males
• Age over 40
• Less than 1 year since the spinal cord injury
• Higher body mass index (BMI)
• The use of a manual wheelchair
• Risks associated with a spinal cord injury at the cervical level:
  • upper extremity immobilisation
  • upper extremity reduction in the range of motion in the acute phase
  • muscle shortening and shoulder capsule tightness
  • impaired muscle strength from weakness
  • spasticity

"Pain in the upper extremities of SCI patients is an incapacitating condition." It interferes with all patient's activities: transfer skills, pressure relief and wheelchair mobility. Prevention and early management of upper limb pain should be addressed at every level of rehabilitation of a person with tetraplegia.

The following are examples of therapeutic interventions aiming for upper limb pain reduction:

• Increasing patient and caregiver's knowledge related to upper limb biomechanics
• Implementing appropriate daily live activity techniques, including wheelchair propulsion
• Avoiding overuse and weight-bearing
• Designing a balanced muscle fitness program for the upper extremity
• Establishing a nutritional orientation with a weight control focus
• Postural optimisation in the appropriate wheelchair
• Evaluating the indication for adaptive devices and environmental changes

Assisting with Function

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wrist_related_tenodesis_effect,_second_step.JPG

Tenodesis Grip

• Contracture in the flexor pollicis longus and extrinsic finger flexor muscles
• Active wrist extension passively pulls the fingers and thumb into flexion
• Objects can be passively held between the thumb and index finger or in the palm

C7 Tetraplegia

1. Innervated upper limb muscles
   • All muscles at the C6 level
   • Pectoralis (sternal head)
   • Triceps
   • Pronator teres
   • Flexor carpi radialis (wrist flexor)
   • Extensor digitorum communis (finger extensor)
2. Weak fingers and/or thumb extension may be present
3. No fingers and thumb flexion
4. Functional impact
   • Able to lift arms above shoulder level
   • Potential for tenodesis grip
   • Strong scapular stability
   • Presence of moderate grasp

Goals for upper limb(UL) management:

• To prevent upper limb secondary complications, including the development of contractures and deformities.
• To assist with function: optimise independence with activities of daily living (ADLs), including eating, dressing, meal prep, grooming, bladder and bowel programme
• To gain community integration through independent transfers without sliding board and independent wheelchair propulsion

C8 Tetraplegia

1. Innervated upper limb muscles
   1. All muscles at the C7 level
   2. Ulnar wrist extensor
   3. Finger flexors
   4. Thumb flexors
2. May have finger and/or thumb flexors
3. No intrinsics
4. No thumb abduction
5. Functional impact
   1. Limited grip function. An active hand can develop with flexors force at least 3-4/5
   2. Use of enlarged, thick and soft grasps for daily activities
   3. No fine motor control
   4. Deformities of the hand may develop due to hand muscle imbalance (clawed hand)

Goals for UL management:

• To prevent upper limb secondary complications, including the development of contractures and deformities.
• To assist with function: optimise independence with activities of daily living (ADLs), including eating, dressing, meal prep, grooming, bladder and bowel programme.
• To gain community integration through independent transfers without sliding board , advanced wheelchair skills, and driving with adaptations.

Incomplete Spinal Cord Injuries

Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury

The term incomplete spinal cord injury " is used when there is the preservation of any sensory and/or motor function below the neurological level that includes the lowest sacral segments S4–5 (i.e., presence of “sacral sparing”)."

Goals for UL management

• Prevent complications
• Improve function

General Guidelines for UL management in incomplete spinal cord injury

• Complete a comprehensive baseline assessment
  • Individual muscle testing
  • Movement analysis for detection of compensatory strategies

• Continuously assess and reassess to align treatment aims with strategies

Treatment strategies for UL management

• UL positioning
• Early out-of-bed mobilisation
• Activities in the upright position using a tilt table or standing frame
• Stimulation for more normal movement pattern: therapist-directed activities, hand-over-hand guidance

Central Cord Syndrome, Anterior Cord Syndrome, Brown-Sequard Syndrome

Central Cord Syndrome

"Central cord syndrome is the most common clinical syndromes, often seen in individuals with underlying cervical spondylosis who sustain a hyperextension injury (most commonly from a fall), and may occur with or without fracture and dislocations."

Pathophysiology

• Forward fall with striking the chin and the neck extending backwards
• High velocity of trauma
• Cervical spine subluxation
• Cervical spine fracture

Symptoms

• Significant strength impairments in the upper and lower extremities, the upper greater than the lower
• Sensory deficits below the level of injury (frequent, but not always)
• Pain and temperature sensations are typically affected
• Light touch sensation impaired
• "Cape-like" sensory impairment across the upper back and down the posterior upper extremities
• Neck pain at the site of spinal cord impingement
• Upper and lower limbs increased muscle tone, and spasticity
• Shoulder pain and/or shoulder subluxation
• Hand oedema
• Joint contractures of the upper limbs

Treatment strategies for UL management

• It varies based on the level of injury. For example, with central cord syndrome at the C5 level, poor proximal stability at the shoulder and the elbow must be addressed.
• Spasticity management
• UL pain management
• UL positioning strategies in sitting, standing and during ambulation

Upper Limb Splinting

Short opponens

• Almost exclusively custom-made
• Facilitates tenodesis by opposing the thumb and preventing thumb overstretching during functional tasks.
• Worn as needed to increase function
• Facilitates tenodesis for individuals with wrist extension 3-5/5 and digitise 0-2/5
• Recommended for individuals with C6, C7-8 SCI

Wrist splint (Futuro splint):

• Prefabricated wrist splints are preferred
• Worn during the day to increase functional activity participation
• Dorsal varieties and a U-Cuff are favourite options
• The primary wrist splint goal is to prevent overstretching of the wrist extensors, and adding a universal cuff provides a stable base for ADLs
• Clinical Practice Guidelines: for daytime use for individuals with elbow flexion 3-5/5, and wrist and hand 0-3/5
• Most commonly used in a C5 SCI (73% of patients) and C4 (40% of patients)

Metacarpal-Phalangeal (MCP) blocking splint

• Custom-made splint
• Prevents hyperextension deformity of the MCP joints
• Prevent MCP hyperextension during functional hand tasks.
• Recommended for patients with C7-8 SCI if intrinsic hand weakness is present

More information on UL splinting in tetraplegia you can find here.

Exercise Therapy

Strengthening Exercises

According to the literature, strengthening exercises in arm ergometry, resistance training, use of mobile arm supports, or virtual reality improves the overall performance of functional daily activities in individuals with a spinal cord injury. Exercise therapy effectively improves functional outcomes in patients with tetraplegia when conducted according to the three training principles.

Three principles of training:

• Overload (the most important)
  • System or tissue must be challenged with the intensity, duration and frequency of exercise
  • The outcome depends on the patient's motivation and feedback received (augmented feedback ), and structure of practice (task specificity and goal-orientated practice)
• Specificity
  • The training effect is limited to the system and tissues involved in the activity
• Reversibility
  • Gains are quickly lost when the overload is removed

Examples of exercise therapy applied in therapy programs for patients with tetraplegia:

• Virtual Reality: offers repetitive practice, feedback about performance and motivation
• Use of robotics to increase therapy intensity

Functional Passive Range of Motion (FPROM)

Patients with lower tetraplegia present with

• Limitations in forearm pronation
• Limitations in elbow extension or elbow hyperextension. Elbow hyperextension was present in one-third of patients participating in the study
• Increased shoulder extension
• Increased wrist extension

According to research , shoulder horizontal adduction and elbow extension were associated with functional performance.

The goal for FPROM:

1. To develop long-term plans for passive range of motion exercises to optimise functional abilities

Resources

• Web-based teaching and educational resource for medical and paramedical professionals involved in SCI Management https://www.elearnsci.org/pages.aspx?id=16&page=Who_are_we
• International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury: Revised 2019