Qualitative Research

Original Editors - Scott Buxton

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Definition

It can be hard to give just one clear definition of what qualitative research is because its broad and in-depth nature and what it is trying to achieve. It would be hard to give it justice with  a fleeting glance but here are a couple.

Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world. Qualitative research is ressearch using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive accont of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.

Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

“Qualitative research involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values.

For some qualitative research can be seen as a simple data collection method but for others can be a complex, deep and meaningful insight into the world.

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative

Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

	Quantitative	Qualitative
Philosophical Foundation	Deductive, reductionalist	Inductive, holistic
Aim	To test pre-set hypothesis	To explore complex human issues
Study Plan	Step-wise, predetermined	Iterative, flexible
Position of researcher	Aims to be detached and objective	Integral part of the research process
Assessing quality of outcomes	Direct tests of validity, reliability using statistics	Indirect quality assurance methods of trustworthiness
MEasures of utility of results	Generalizability	Transferability

Basic Approaches 

Quaitative research can appear to be a complex topic which may push many prospective researchers towards the comforts of a quantitative approach, however, the outcomes of performing qualitative research can have equally important ramifications. After all patients are more than a disease or just 'another number' on a waiting list, they are people and are the reason many people are in the healthcare profession; their experience is vitally important. Ultimately qualitative research attempts to bridge between scientific findings and clinical practice with patient interaction.

The table below gives a brief overview of the central identidy and themes of qualitative research and data collection methods:

Research Approaches and Implications for Data Collection

Types of Approach	Defining Features	Data Collection Implications
Phenomenology	Focuses on individual experiences, beliefs and perceptions Test used as a proxy for human experience	Questions and observations are aimed at drawing out individual experiences and perceptions In focus groups, group exeriences and normative perceptions are typically soght out In-depth interviews and focus groups are ideal methods for collecting phenomenological data.
Ethnography	Oriented toward studying shared meanings and practices Emphasizes the emic perspective  Can have a historical or contemporary focus	Questions and observations are generally related to social and cultural processes and shared meanings within a given group Traditionally associated with long-term fieldwork Participation observation is well suited to ethnographic inquiry
Inductive Thematic Analysis	Draws on inductive analytic methods  Involves identifying and coding emergent themes within data Most common analytic approach used in qualitative inquiry	ITA requires free-flowing data In-depth interviews and focus groups are the most common data collection techniques associated with ITA Notes from participant observation activites can be analysed using ITA but interview/group data is better
Grounded Theory	Inductive data collection and analytic methods Uses systematic and exhaustive comparison of text-segments to build thematic structure and theory from a body of text Common analytic approach in qualitative studies	In-depth interviews and focus groups are the most common data collection techniques Sample sizes for grounded theory are more limited than for ITA because analytic process is more intensive and time consuming ITA and grounded theory are not the same
Case Study	Analysis of one to several cases that are unique with respect to the research topic Analysis primarily focused on exploring the unique quality	Case studies are selected based on a unique and sometimes rare quality Questions and observations should focus on the unique feature
Discourse/Conversation Analysis	Study of naturally occuring discoure - can range from conversation, public events, documents.	These linguistically focused methods often use existing documentation  Conversations between individuals that spontaneously emerge within group interviews or focus groups may be studies Participant observation is conductive to discourse analysis if narratives from public events can be recorded
Narrative Analysis	Narratives used as data source Can be from several sources i.e interviews, literature, letters	If generating narratives, then questions need to be aimed at eliciting stories and the importance those stories hold for participants as well as the larger culture
Mixed Methods	Defined as integrating qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study Two most common methods are concurrent and sequential	Collection of qualitative data in a mixed methods study can be informed from a wide range of theoretical perspectives and analytic approaches Researches must specify upfront and in details how, when and why qualitative and quantitative data will be integrated.

Elements of Qualitative Research

Ethics

As with quantitative research there are ethical standards which need to be upheld when performing qualitaive research. The starting point of ethical concerns are the 4 principles of Beauchamp and Childress: 

1. Autonomy; respecting the rights of the individual i.e allowing the right to withdraw, full disclosure on the aims and involvement of the research and anonymity, consent and confidentiality
2. Beneficience; doing good from the results of the research
3. Non-maleficience; not doing harm to the patients be it physical, psychological or emotional
4. Justice; being euqal, fair and responsible

Example of non-ethical studies are the 'Little Albert Study', the Milgram study about obedience, Harlow's monkey experiment and Zimbardo's prison experiment.

It is important to consider that asking a person about their thoughts and feelings about an experience may be traumatic or emotionally distressing and care needs to be taken when asking these questions. It may require a talking-therapy aftercare service to be in place to address these concerns. It is also important to remember that the emotions or stress may arise after the research has finished. 

With qualitative research it is vital to consider confidentiality you could potentially have thousands of words typed from a conversation you have had with a participant, potentially containing sensitive information so password protecting document and keeping them under lock-and-key is essential.

Prior to conducting research ethical approval will need to be granted by a Local Research Ethical Committee (LREC). This may contain 8-12 individuals from a wide range of professions, ages and experience who are separate from, and not involved in, the study in question. Universities and research centres will have their own research committees. If a study involves any of the following ehtical approval will be needed.

1. The collection of personal information
2. Video or audio recording
3. Observation of individuals or groups
4. Collections of tissue of any kind
5. Deception
6. invasive procedures
7. Chldren
8. Anyone not anble to provide consent
9. Any procedure which may cause distress (including inadvertently)
10. Any other ethical issue

Sampling

Sampling in qualitative is integrally different to quantitative research sampling. This is explained in the following subheadings.

Size

Sometimes less is more. Quantitative data is focussed on generalizability and subsequently the more participants the better. This may be 1000's of participants to 100,000's however in qualitative research all that is needed is enough participants to answer the research question. More participants may be recruited half-way through the study or until common themes or answer reoccur (Data Saturation), this may only take 20 participants. Another condieration is the sheer amount of time and effort required to thoroughly analysis and manage qualitative data, so this factor may be limiting to the scope of the study.

Sampling Strategies

Convenience sample is the least rigourous technique in qualitative research, essentially it is involving the most accessible subjects. Although being the least rigurous it is most cost effective financially and in terms of effort and time demans. It may lack credibility so a more thoughtful and thourough method is needed

Judgement/Purposeful sampling is the most common sampling technique. The researcher seeks out participants who will answer the research question the most effectively.  It may be beneficial to include a narrow or broad sample based on intellect, geographical location, gender, age, experience or beliefs.Participants may also be able to suggest other participants who have had similar experiences which further the sample sizze, this is known as snowball sampling.

Theoretical Sampling necessitates building interpretative theories from the emerging data and selecting a new sample to elaborate on the new theories may be needed. This sample is ever changing until the research questions are answered.

Critiquing Qualitative Research

Critiquing research is integral to providing the best possible interventions in healthcare.

Glossary

Phenomenology - Phenomenology is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. The central structure of an experience is its intentionality, its being directed toward something, as it is an experience of or about some object. An experience is directed toward an object by virtue of its content or meaning (which represents the object) together with appropriate enabling conditions.

Ethnography - this term traditionally refers to a practice in which researchers spend long periods living within a culture in order to study it. The term has been adopted within qualitative market research to describe occasions where researchers spend time - hours, days or weeks - observing and/or interacting with participants in areas of their everyday lives. This contrasts with interview-based research in which interaction with respondents is limited to a conventional interview or group discussion format, is more limited in time, and often takes place outside the participant's own environment

Inductive Theme Analysis - .Thematic analysis is used in qualitative research and focuses on examining themes within data.[3] This method emphasizes organization and rich description of the data set. Thematic analysis goes beyond simply counting phrases or words in a text and moves on to identifying implicit and explicit ideas within the data Grounded Theory - All research is "grounded" in data, but few studies produce a "grounded theory." Grounded Theory is an inductive methodology. Although many call Grounded Theory a qualitative method, it is not. It is a general method. It is the systematic generation of theory from systematic research. It is a set of rigorous research procedures leading to the emergence of conceptual categories. These concepts/categories are related to each other as a theoretical explanation of the action(s) that continually resolves the main concern of the participants in a substantive area. Grounded Theory can be used with either qualitative or quantitative data.

Discourse Analysis - Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use or any significant semiotic event.

Narrative Analysis -