Positioning

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Original Editors - Naomi O'Reilly and Stacey Schiurring

Top Contributors - Naomi O'Reilly, Stacy Schiurring and Jess Bell      

Introduction

Moving and positioning lie within the broader context of manual handling. Positioning is a key aspect of patient care. Optimum positioning is a good starting point to maximise the benefit of other interventions, such as bed exercises and breathing exercises; it can also assist rest and mobility, thereby facilitating recovery, enhancing function and preventing secondary complications. However, although it is important, it must not be seen in isolation and is just one aspect of patient management where the overall goal is to optimise independence.

In medical terms, ‘position’ relates to body position or posture, thus positioning involves placing the patient into a specific static alignment, which can involve their entire body, or just a single body part or limb.  Positioning can be achieved either;

• actively by the patient, meaning they are able to move under their own volition, or
• passively, where the patient is placed into a specific position with assistance of one or more other persons. 

A major challenge to positioning is trying to place a dynamic body into a prolonged static position. The human body was made for movement, it does not tolerate prolonged periods of immobilisation well. This means the positioning must be comfortable and allow the patient to reposition as needed, while maintaining the purpose behind the positioning. It is essential to frequently evaluate the effect that positioning is having on the individual to ensure that the intervention is helping to achieve the desired result or goal. Consider whether the positioning procedure is being clinically effective and, where possible, is evidence based.

Purpose

The purpose and indications for therapeutic positioning vary depending on the patient population being treated. Positioning is indicated for patients who have difficulty moving or require periods of rest when normal function is impaired. Patients should always be encouraged to move themselves where possible, but where assistance is required they should to do as much of the movement as they can themselves.

Table.1 Purpose of Positioning

Purpose	Indications
Positioning for Comfort or Rest	Pain Management
	Energy Conservation
Limb Management/Protection	Injury Prevention
	Prevent further damage to an affected limb Function, Sensory, Neglect
Improve or Normalise Postural Alignment for Optimal Function	Contracture Management
	Eating, Feeding and Swallowing
	Vocalisation
	Personal Hygiene
	ADL's
	Positional Tolerance
Improve Sensory Input, Awareness and/or Arousal	Orientation to Upright
	Orientation for Reference Point for Movement
Offloading	Pressure Ulcers
	Wounds
Improve Circulation	Edema Management
	Prevention / Healing of Pressure Ulcers
Improve Respiration	Postural Drainage
	Positions of Ease
	Positioning for COPD, Cardiac Conditions, Spinal Cord Injury etc.
Improrove Psychological Well-being	Self-esteem
Maintain Patient Dignity and Privacy	In surgery or during physical assessment Minimise exposure of the patient
Allow Maximum Visibility and Access	In surgery or during physical assessment adequate exposure of part of body to be examined

Contraindications

There are no general contraindications for positioning; however, some positions are contraindicated for specific conditions or situations, most typically seen within hospital settings, particularly in Intensive Care Units or on post surgical wards;

Table.2 Contraindications for Positioning

Prone	Trendelenburg	Reverse Trendelenburg
Absolute Contraindication Unstable Spinal Fracture or Spinal Instability Acute Bleeding (eg, Hemorrhagic Shock, Massive Haemoptysis) Raised intracranial pressure >30 mmHg or cerebral perfusion pressure <60 mmHg Tracheal Surgery or Sternotomy within two weeks	Intracranial Pressure (ICP) > 20 mm Hg Patients in whom increased intracranial pressure is to be avoided (eg, neurosurgery, aneurysms, eye surgery) Uncontrolled Hypertension Distended Abdomen Oesophageal Surgery Recent gross haemoptysis related to recent lung carcinoma treated surgically or with radiation therapy. Uncontrolled airway at risk for aspiration (tube feeding or recent meal)	Hypotension Vasoactive Medication
Relative Contraindication Raised Intracranial Pressure >30 mmHg or Cerebral Perfusion Pressure <60 mmHg Haemodynamic Instability Unstable Pelvic or Long Bone Fractures Open Abdominal Wounds

Clinical Considerations

• Baseline Posture
  • Posture can be simply defined as the position of the body in space where the body is able to maintain balance during dynamic and static movements, which should provide maximum stability with minimal energy consumption and stress on the body.  This principle should be applied during any positioning.
  • A postural assessment is necessary when evaluating a patient for a therapeutic positioning. 
  • Common abnormal postures include: forward head, kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis, and pelvic malalignments such as windswept hips, which need to be considered when planning therapeutic positioning interventions..
• Sources of Pressure
  • Pressure injuries develop in localised areas when soft tissues are compressed between a bony prominence and an external surface for a prolonged amount of time.
  • Immobility is a major risk factor for development of pressure injuries thus prevention is the best intervention, particularly in patients who have difficulty repositioning themselves,
• Orthopaedic Considerations
  • Weightbearing Status
    • for lower or upper extremity: this is important for patients who assist in their repositioning to limit or avoid WB through the involved extremity.
  • Total Knee Arthroplasy
    • In supine, a pillow or roll should not be placed under the surgical knee. Evidence does suggest use of inactive CPM with hip and knee flexion of 30° may mitigate knee swelling and minimise blood loss, leading to early rehabilitation and improved post operative range of motion. Weightbearing through the surgical knee, such as in kneeling, should be avoided until the incision line is well healed and pain controlled.
  • Total Hip Arthroplasty
    • Associated movement precautions based on the method of surgical replacement.  Traditionally, these precautions stay in place for 6 weeks following the joint replacement, although current evidence does not support the routine use of these hip precautions for patients status post total hip arthroplasty for primary hip osteoarthritis to prevent dislocation.
      • Anterior Approach - Avoid hip external rotation, active abduction and flexion beyond 90°
      • Posterior Approach - Avoid hip internal rotation, adduction across midline, and flexion beyond 90°
      • Lateral Approach - Avoid hip external rotation, active abduction, and extension
  • Transtibial/Below Knee Amputation
    • Avoid shortening of hip and knee flexors
  • Transfemoral/Above Knee Amputation
    • Avoid shortening of hip flexors, abductors, and external rotation
  • Sternal Precautions
    • Following open heart surgery: Avoid shoulder flexion above 90 degrees, shoulder external rotation beyond neutral, and shoulder abduction past 90 degrees.  If patient able to reposition themselves, avoid excessive pulling or pushing with their upper limbs and one-sided upper limb activity.
  • Spinal Precautions
    • Following Spinal Surgery - Avoid forward flexion, maintain shoulders and hips in alignment with no rotation. 
    • Following Cervical Surgery - Avoid pillow under head/neck to prevent forward flexion of cervical spine.
    • Spinal Bracing - If required be aware of amount of bed elevation allowed before the brace must be applied - ensure regular pressure checks as brace can act as a source of pressure.
  • External Fixation
    • Bulky and Heavy - Impact Independent Positioning
    • Oedema Management - Require Elevation
• Neurological Considerations
  • Tone
    • Spasticity - Can limit positions available for therapeutic interventions secondary reduced ROM or tonal fluctuations
    • Flaccidity - Increased subluxation risk with improper positioning and require assistance with repositioning
    • Splints - Support tone management or extremity protection with proper alignment but can be source of pressure
  • Cognition
    • Can the patient understand the purpose behind the therapeutic positioning? 
    • Do they know when to call for assistance? 
    • Are they safe to be left in a specific position?
  • Sensation
    • Has the patient got impaired sensation? If so may not be able to feel the effects of prolonged immobilisation
• Cardiorespiratory Considerations
  • Aspiration Risk
    • Aspiration is when food, liquid, or some other foreign material enters the airway and lungs. Patients with a known aspiration risk should have the head of the bed elevated to at least 30 - 45 degrees for up to an hour after eating. Read more about the relationship between posture and swallowing.
  • Pacemaker Precautions
    • To protect the newly implanted device, which has leads interacting with cardiac tissue are the same for sternal precautions with the additional precaution of limiting reaching behind the patient’s back such as a movement like fastening a bra strap.
• Circulation Considerations
  • Odema Management
    • Depending on the level of edema present, edematous limbs will require elevation – ideally above the level of the heart.  This needs to be taken into consideration when prioritizing other therapeutic positioning interventions.
• Mobility
  • Can the patient assist in their positioning, or will one or more staff members be required to assist? 
  • Will the patient be able to perform adequate pressure relief independently? 
  • Can they reach the call bell to call for assistance?

Principles of Positioning

A patient should never be placed in a static position, which can cause them harm or pain. The following principles guiding positioning should be considered in relation to the short‐ and long‐term goals of rehabilitation and management for each specific patient. Regular reassessment is necessary to allow for modification of plans to reflect changes in status.

• Determine Purpose for the Positioning: Why is this positioning being used with this patient? 
  • For accurate examination performance? e.g. measuring muscle strength or length
  • To achieve a specific therapeutic effect? e.g. improving upright tolerance or postural drainage.  
  • As a preventive measure? e.g. contracture prevention
• Assessment:
  • To define the patient’s functional impairments and abilities as related to positioning.
    • Does the patient have appropriate muscle length to comfortably maintain the desired position? 
    • Does the patient have the cognitive ability to safety remain in the position? 
    • Can the patient tolerate the position due to cardiopulmonary needs?
  • Identify Risk Factors from Proposed Positioning
    • Including impaired sensation, sources of pressure or skin tears, risk of falls, increase in pain, or patient safety awareness.
  • Reassessment after each positioning intervention
    • Did the positioning achieve the desired result?
    • Were there any negative outcomes? e.g. development of pressure areas
• Identify risk factors from proposed positioning
• Communication; Explain to the client why their position is being changed and how it will be done. Rapport with the patient will make them more likely to maintain the new position.
• Encourage Patient Assistance; Determine if the patient can fully or partially assist. This will help increase patients independence and self-esteem.
• Level of Assistance: How much support does your patient require for positioning?

Level of Assistance	Description
Independent	Patient is able to re-position independently and safely.
Supervision	Patient requires no physical assistance but may require verbal reminders
Minimal Assistance	Patient is cooperative and reliable but needs some minimal physical assistance with positioning, typically requiring only one person. Is able to perform 75% of the required activity on their own.
Moderate Assistance	Patient requires moderate physical assistance, typically requiring two people and may require equipment to assist with positioning. Is able to perform 50% of the required activity on their own.
Maximal Assitance	Patient requires full physical assistance for re-positioning, may be unpredictable and uncooperative and requires equipment to assist with positioning. Is able to perform 0-25% of the required activity on their own.

• Use of Positioning Aids:
  • Bed boards, slide boards, pillows, patient lifts, and slings can facilitate the ease of changing positions.
• Raise the client’s bed. Adjust or reposition the client’s bed so that the weight is at the nurse’s center of gravity level.
• Frequent position changes. Note that any correct or incorrect position can be detrimental to the patient if maintained for a long time. Repositioning the patient every two hours helps prevent complications like pressure ulcers and skin breakdown.
• Avoid friction and shearing. When moving patients, lift rather than slide to prevent friction that can abrade the skin making it more prone to skin breakdown.
• Proper body mechanics. Observe good body mechanics for your and your patient’s safety.
  • Position yourself close to the client.
  • Avoid twisting your back, neck, and pelvis by keeping them aligned.
  • Flex your knees and keep your feet wide apart.
  • Use your arms and legs and not your back.
  • Tighten abdominal muscles and gluteal muscles in preparation for the move.
  • A person with the heaviest load coordinates the efforts of the nurse and initiates the count to 3.

Conclusion

Positioning is a useful therapeutic tool that can be individualised to a patient’s unique needs and limitations.  It is a natural continuation of the assessment skills you have reviewed in previous courses.  While positioning can appear simple and straightforward at the surface, I hope this course has provided some insight into the skill and mindfulness that goes into effective and safe positioning.

References