Managing Burns and Limb Trauma

Original Editor - User Name

Top Contributors - Wanda van Niekerk, Jess Bell and Tarina van der Stockt  

Surgical Considerations

• Zone of Injury
  • The zone of injury is defined as: The area surrounding a wound that is traumatised but may not appear so.  It may be difficult to define the response of soft tissue and bone to traumatic injury. Thorough assessment and careful consideration of the zone of injury are needed when deciding the level of amputation.
  • Burn injuries produce a definable zone of injury. The Jackson’s Burn Model divides the wound into these zones:
    • zone of coagulation
    • zone of stasis
    • zone of hyperaemia
    • Read more about the local response to burn wounds here.

• The multidisciplinary team approach is necessary to provide person-centred care that will facilitate positive outcomes and optimise quality of life. In cases where emergent amputation (in situations such as severe sepsis or life-threatening trauma) is needed it is not always possible to get input from the full multidisciplinary team, but this should be incorporated as soon as the person is medically stable and allow for the team to formulate the treatment plan.

• Flap techniques
  • Different flap techniques may be used to close the wound and create a functional stump. Techniques include:
    • Long posterior flap – this is the most commonly used technique
      • Benefits of posterior flaps:
        • provides distal coverage
        • improves vascularisation
        • may improve wound healing outcomes
        • suture line is away from end weight-bearing surface
    • Other flap techniques:
      • skew flap
      • sagittal flap
      • medial flap

• Amputation level and energy expenditure
  • Energy expenditure and mechanical efficiency are influenced by the length of the residual limb. With more proximal amputations the metabolic cost of walking is significantly increased – the higher the level of amputation the more energy is needed for ambulation. For example, walking with a trans-femoral prosthesis takes much more effort than a trans-tibial prosthesis. T
  • The highest energy requirement is seen in persons with bilateral amputations.
  • Aetiology may also influence energy expenditure in persons with amputation. Traumatic amputations often occur in younger, healthier individuals with higher baseline activity levels. These individuals can often compensate better, and the energy required for prosthetic gait may be less. In individuals with vascular disease who require an amputation, their baseline activity levels are usually lower and thus energy expenditure is higher as these patients do not compensate that easily with regards to endurance and cardiovascular capacities.

Table 1. Energy requirements for different levels of amputation (adapted from Meier et al.)

Level of amputation	Increased energy expenditure above normal (%)
Transtibial	20 – 25 %
Traumatic transtibial	25 %
Vascular transtibial	40 %
Bilateral transtibial	41 %
Transfemoral	60 – 70 %
Traumatic	68 %
Vascular	100 %
Transtibial/Transfemoral	118 %
Bilateral transfemoral	> 200 %

Amputation levels

Read more about Levels of lower limb amputation and this affects weight-bearing, gait and balance:

https://www.physio-pedia.com/Principles_of_Amputation#Levels_of_Lower_Limb_Amputations

Surgical Techniques

Goals of amputation surgery Penn-Barwell JG, Bennett PM. Amputations and rehabilitation. Surgery (Oxford). 2023 Mar 22.:

Consideration of analgesia

Optimal length of residual limb

Wound healing that allows for prosthesis fitting,

Avoid painful neuromas

Keep other joints supple

Avoid contractures

Early involvement of multidisciplinary team - prosthetist and rehabilitation professionals such as pt and ot

Bevelled or contoured bone ends can reduce discomfort caused by bone edges and prominences.

For wound and scar management, soft tissue flaps should be planned in such a way that the incision and scar is not over weight-bearinf areas or bony prominences

Neuromas - dissected nerve buried in muscle

There have been advancements in physiologic nerve stabilisation, which is a good way to prevent or reduce post-amputation pain. Most common techniques for physiologic nerve stabilisation is:

Targeted muscle reinnervation = " a nerve transfer of a proximal nerve, either mixed or sensory, into a distal motor nerve"

Regenerative peripheral nerve interface = an autologous free muscle graft that is wrapped around the end of a transected peripheral nerve"

Read more here:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666769X23000064

Heterotropic Ossificans (HO)

Heterotropic ossification is defined as "the formation of bone at extraskeletal sites"It is more common in persons undergoing amputation for trauma. The incidence of HO in military people with amputations has been reported to be as high as 65%.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories and local radiotherapy may prevent HO formationref 24 however, often these treatments are contraindicated in an complex trauma patient

For symptomatic HO management:

pain management

physiotherapy

socket modifications

Surgical excision:

usually delayed until local inflammation has decreased

best results are achieved with complete excision of lesions performed at least 6 months from injury

wound complications are a risk after exision, but relieve of symptons and patient satisfaction is typically achieved

Edwards DS, Kuhn KM, Potter BK, Forsberg JA. Heterotopic ossification: a review of current understanding, treatment, and future. Journal of orthopaedic trauma. 2016 Oct 1;30:S27-30.

Read more: https://journals.lww.com/jorthotrauma/fulltext/2016/10001/heterotopic_ossification__a_review_of_current.7.aspx

Wound healing in burn injuries

Key considerations:

Nutritional intake:

Increased caloric intake:

Protein

100 extra calories per each 1% of body surface area burned

While healing: 1.5 g of protein per 1lb of body weight

Healed: 0.5g of protein per 1lb of body weight to maintain healed skin

Protein dosage: 20 - 30g, throughout the day

Table in video

Refer to guidelines here

Sleep

minimum of 5 hours of consistent sleep to assist with wound healing

hours 0 -5 = rest

hours 5 -8 = healing

Contractures

Definition:

High risk in people with burn injuries

In persons with amputation contractures may require prosthetic alignment compensations

Contractures increases energy requirements with ambulation

Contractures may increase the risk of injury with asymmetrical ambulation patterns

Typical contracture patterns

Lower Limb

Hip flexion

Hip abduction

Hip external rotation

Knee flexion

Upper limb?

Prevention is more manageable than correction! Work smarter, not harder!

Prolonged position helps prevent contractions

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