Infection Prevention and Control: Difference between revisions
mNo edit summary |
(Mainly grammatical, punctuation and structural edits, particularly to the last section on IPC in older adults.) |
||
| Line 6: | Line 6: | ||
== Introduction == | == Introduction == | ||
[[File:Infection control mask.jpg|right|frameless]] | [[File:Infection control mask.jpg|right|frameless]] | ||
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), infection prevention and control ('''IPC''') is a scientific approach and practical solution designed to prevent harm caused by infection to patients and health workers. | According to the World Health Organization (WHO), infection prevention and control ('''IPC''') is a scientific approach and practical solution designed to prevent harm caused by infection to patients and health workers. It is a subset of epidemiology, but also serves an essential function in infectious diseases, social sciences and [[Global Health|global health]]<ref name=":0">WHO.infection prevention&control .Available from:https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/about/ipc/en/</ref>. | ||
Effective '''IPC''' is a public health issue that is fundamental in patient safety and health system strengthening | Effective '''IPC''' is a public health issue that is fundamental in patient safety and health system strengthening. The prevention of healthcare-associated infections (HAI), [[Endemics, Epidemics and Pandemics|epidemics]] (including the 2013-2016 [[Ebola Virus|Ebola virus]] disease outbreak), and [[Endemics, Epidemics and Pandemics|pandemics]] of international concern (i.e. 2009 flu pandemic and the [[Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)|coronavirus disease 2019]]) are rooted in effective IPC measures<ref name=":4">World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/gpsc/ipc-components/en/ Guidelines on core components of infection prevention and control programmes at the national and acute health care facility level]. World Health Organization; 2016.</ref>. A guiding principle on WHO's core components of IPC is that "access to health care services designed and managed to minimise the risks of avoidable HAI for patients and health care workers is a basic human right"<ref name=":4" />. | ||
== The Spread of Infectious Disease == | == The Spread of Infectious Disease == | ||
| Line 30: | Line 30: | ||
=== Infection Spread in Healthcare === | === Infection Spread in Healthcare === | ||
Healthcare facilities, whether hospitals or primary care clinics are an area with an elevated risk of disease transmission due to the presence and relative ratio of susceptible individuals. One in ten patients get an infection whilst receiving care<ref name=":8">World Health Organisation. Infection prevention and control https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/en/ Accessed 17 March 2020</ref> yet effective infection prevention and control reduces health care-associated infections by at least 30%<ref name=":8" /> | Healthcare facilities, whether hospitals or primary care clinics are an area with an elevated risk of disease transmission due to the presence and relative ratio of susceptible individuals. One in ten patients get an infection whilst receiving care<ref name=":8">World Health Organisation. Infection prevention and control https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/en/ Accessed 17 March 2020</ref> yet effective infection prevention and control reduces health care-associated infections by at least 30%<ref name=":8" />. In a healthcare setting, the three components required for infection spread are the following<ref name=":3">How Infections Spread | Infection Control | CDC [Internet]. Cdc.gov. 2020 [cited 15 March 2020]. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/spread/index.html</nowiki></ref>: | ||
* '''Source''' - places where infectious agents survive (e.g. sinks, hospital equipment, countertops, medical devices). | * '''Source''' - places where infectious agents survive (e.g. sinks, hospital equipment, countertops, medical devices). | ||
** Environment - patient care areas, sinks, hospital equipment, countertops, medical devices. | ** Environment - patient care areas, sinks, hospital equipment, countertops, medical devices. | ||
| Line 52: | Line 52: | ||
Other steps that can be taken to control the spread within communities include environmental measures such as: | Other steps that can be taken to control the spread within communities include environmental measures such as: | ||
* Modifying environments. | * Modifying environments. | ||
* Surveillance of | * Surveillance of diseases. | ||
* Food safety. | * Food safety. | ||
* Air quality. | * Air quality. | ||
| Line 64: | Line 64: | ||
=== Vaccinations === | === Vaccinations === | ||
Vaccinations are designed to improve immunity to a particular disease. Vaccines work by introducing small amounts of the disease-causing virus or bacteria into the host, allowing them to build up natural immunity. The introduction of regular vaccines have slowed down and in some cases eradicated certain diseases such as [[Poliomyelitis|polio]], measles, mumps, whooping cough and rubeola (measles). There are also vaccinations for chickenpox but this is not given routinely and is reserved for those at risk of spreading the disease to those with a weakened immune system<ref>Chickenpox vaccine overview. [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vaccinations/chickenpox-vaccine/ NHS Website]. Accessed 15 March 2020 | Vaccinations are designed to improve immunity to a particular disease. Vaccines work by introducing small amounts of the disease-causing virus or bacteria into the host, allowing them to build up natural immunity. The introduction of regular vaccines have slowed down and in some cases eradicated certain diseases such as [[Poliomyelitis|polio]], measles, mumps, whooping cough and rubeola (measles). There are also vaccinations for chickenpox but this is not given routinely and is reserved for those at risk of spreading the disease to those with a weakened immune system<ref>Chickenpox vaccine overview. [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vaccinations/chickenpox-vaccine/ NHS Website]. Accessed 15 March 2020 | ||
</ref>. This is due to the fact that it is prevalent in children under 10 years of age and symptoms are usually mild; this method allows them to build up natural immunity and contributes to improving the immunisation of a community | </ref>. This is due to the fact that it is prevalent in children under 10 years of age and symptoms are usually mild; this method allows them to build up natural immunity and contributes to improving the immunisation of a community<ref>Brisson, M., & Edmunds, W. J. (2003). ''Economic Evaluation of Vaccination Programs: The Impact of Herd-Immunity. Medical Decision Making, 23(1), 76–82.'' doi:10.1177/0272989x02239651 </ref>. This type of protection is known as '''herd immunity'''<ref>Fine PE. Herd immunity: history, theory, practice. Epidemiologic reviews. 1993 Jan 1;15(2):265-302.</ref>. | ||
=== Antivirals === | === Antivirals === | ||
For infectious diseases that are caused by viral agents such as influenza, [[HIV/AIDS|HIV]], herpes, and hepatitis B, antibiotics provide no defence and in these cases, antiviral medications are the most effective at slowing down the progression of the disease and boosting the immune system. Unfortunately, as with antibiotics, viruses can mutate over time and become resistant to these antiviral drugs | For infectious diseases that are caused by viral agents such as influenza, [[HIV/AIDS|HIV]], herpes, and hepatitis B, antibiotics provide no defence and in these cases, antiviral medications are the most effective at slowing down the progression of the disease and boosting the immune system. Unfortunately, as with antibiotics, viruses can mutate over time and become resistant to these antiviral drugs<ref name=":5" />. | ||
==Infection Control in Healthcare Facilities== | ==Infection Control in Healthcare Facilities== | ||
| Line 111: | Line 111: | ||
If an individual with a suspected or confirmed case of infectious disease has attended your clinic, all surfaces that the person has come into contact with must be cleaned. | If an individual with a suspected or confirmed case of infectious disease has attended your clinic, all surfaces that the person has come into contact with must be cleaned. | ||
* The room where they were placed/isolated should not be cleaned or used for one hour and the door to the room should remain shut. | * The room where they were placed/isolated should not be cleaned or used for one hour and the door to the room should remain shut. | ||
* The person assigned to clean the room should wear gloves (disposable single-use nitrile or household gloves) and a disposable apron (if one is available) then physically clean the environment and furniture using a household detergent solution followed by a disinfectant or combined household detergent and disinfectant, for example, one that contains a hypochlorite (bleach solution)<ref>Wilcox MH, Fawley WN, Wigglesworth N, Parnell P, Verity P, Freeman J. Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2003 Jun 1;54(2):109-14.</ref>. | * The person assigned to clean the room should wear gloves (disposable single-use nitrile or household gloves) and a disposable apron (if one is available) then physically clean the environment and furniture using a household detergent solution followed by a disinfectant or combined household detergent and disinfectant, for example, one that contains a hypochlorite (bleach solution)<ref>Wilcox MH, Fawley WN, Wigglesworth N, Parnell P, Verity P, Freeman J. Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2003 Jun 1;54(2):109-14.</ref>. Products with these specifications are available in different formats including wipes. | ||
* No special cleaning of walls or floors is required. | * No special cleaning of walls or floors is required. | ||
* Pay special attention to frequently touched flat surfaces, backs of chairs, couches, door handles or any surfaces that the affected person has touched. | * Pay special attention to frequently touched flat surfaces, backs of chairs, couches, door handles or any surfaces that the affected person has touched. | ||
* Discard waste (including used tissues, disposable cleaning cloths) into a healthcare risk waste bag. | * Discard waste (including used tissues, disposable cleaning cloths) into a healthcare risk waste bag. | ||
* Remove the disposable plastic apron (if worn) and gloves and discard into a healthcare risk waste bag. | * Remove the disposable plastic apron (if worn) and gloves and discard into a healthcare risk waste bag. | ||
* If a healthcare risk waste bag (yellow) is not available, place the waste in a small household waste bag and tie securely. | * If a healthcare risk waste bag (yellow) is not available, place the waste in a small household waste bag and tie securely. Do not overfill. Then place the bag in a second household waste bag and tie securely. Store in a safe location.If the case is not confirmed the waste can be disposed of as per usual.If a case is confirmed public health will then advise you what to do with the waste. | ||
* Once this process has been completed and all surfaces are dry the room can be put back into use. | * Once this process has been completed and all surfaces are dry the room can be put back into use. | ||
| Line 128: | Line 128: | ||
== Improving Social Determinants == | == Improving Social Determinants == | ||
Another important factor to consider in the control of infectious diseases is to address and improve [[Determinants of Health|social determinants]] of health within societies. There is a direct link between a person's health and their environment. WHO has identified three "common interventions" for improving health conditions worldwide<ref>World Health Organization (2013). [http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/84213/9789241548625_eng.pdf;jsessionid=97F39CFE3967A7FE93BA46E18B4418E9?sequence=1 The economics of social determinants of health and health inequalities: a resource book (PDF)]. World Health Organization. <nowiki>ISBN 978-92-4-154862-5</nowiki></ref>: | Another important factor to consider in the control of infectious diseases is to address and improve [[Determinants of Health|social determinants]] of health within societies. There is a direct link between a person's health and their environment. WHO has identified three "common interventions" for improving health conditions worldwide<ref>World Health Organization (2013). [http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/84213/9789241548625_eng.pdf;jsessionid=97F39CFE3967A7FE93BA46E18B4418E9?sequence=1 The economics of social determinants of health and health inequalities: a resource book (PDF)]. World Health Organization. <nowiki>ISBN 978-92-4-154862-5</nowiki></ref>: | ||
* Education - there is a strong link between health and education<ref>Von dem Knesebeck O, Verde PE, Dragano N. Education and health in 22 European countries. Social science & medicine. 2006 Sep 1;63(5):1344-51.</ref> | * Education - there is a strong link between health and education<ref>Von dem Knesebeck O, Verde PE, Dragano N. Education and health in 22 European countries. Social science & medicine. 2006 Sep 1;63(5):1344-51.</ref>. | ||
* Social Protection - access to affordable health care and some form of social security system can also determine the health and behaviours in a community<ref>Chung H, Muntaner C. Welfare state matters: a typological multilevel analysis of wealthy countries. Health Policy, 2007, 80(2):328–339</ref> | * Social Protection - access to affordable health care and some form of social security system can also determine the health and behaviours in a community<ref>Chung H, Muntaner C. Welfare state matters: a typological multilevel analysis of wealthy countries. Health Policy, 2007, 80(2):328–339</ref>. | ||
* Urban Development - how our villages, towns and cities are designed can have a big impact on health and the spread of diseases. Living in overcrowded environments or in housing that is damp and/or that doesn't have adequate facilities and sanitation can increase the spread of infectious diseases | * Urban Development - how our villages, towns and cities are designed can have a big impact on health and the spread of diseases. Living in overcrowded environments or in housing that is damp and/or that doesn't have adequate facilities and sanitation can increase the spread of infectious diseases<ref>Thomson H, Atkinson R, Petticrew M, Kearns A. Do urban regeneration programmes improve public health and reduce health inequalities? A synthesis of the evidence from UK policy and practice (1980–2004). Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. 2006 Feb 1;60(2):108-15.</ref>. | ||
=== '''Infection Control in | === '''Infection Control in Older Adults''' === | ||
Infectious diseases were the leading | Infectious diseases were the leading cause of death in older adults until the 20th century and this is because symptoms such as leukocytosis and fever are generally absent<ref name=":9">Mouton CP, Bazaldua OV, Pierce B, Espino DV. [https://www.aafp.org/afp/2001/0115/p257.html Common infections in older adults]. American family physician. 2001 Jan 15;63(2):257.</ref>. Pneumonia, flu and other infectious diseases (including COVID-19) have resulted in high mortality rates among older adults. Certain bacterial infections are also becoming resistant to antibiotic agents that were previously effective, leading to multi-drug resistant bacteria.<ref name=":9" /> There are also challenges with specific vaccines or anti-viral therapy for some infectious conditions, including the class of coronaviruses that include SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. Active infection is a challenge not only for older adults with infectious diseases, but also for health care providers<ref>El Chakhtoura NG, Bonomo RA, Jump RL. I[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5846087/ nfluence of aging and environment on presentation of infection in older adults]. Infectious Disease Clinics. 2017 Dec 1;31(4):593-608.</ref>. It is therefore essential for clinicians, such as physiotherapists who manage older adults in different settings, to identify challenges in the control of infection in older adults and measures to stop the spread of infection. | ||
===== '''Infection control challenges in older adults''' ===== | ===== '''Infection control challenges in older adults''' ===== | ||
| Line 140: | Line 140: | ||
'''Physiological changes''' | '''Physiological changes''' | ||
Immunosenescence describes an age-related poor immune function that predisposes older adults to infectious diseases | Immunosenescence describes an age-related poor immune function that predisposes older adults to infectious diseases<ref name=":10">Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM. [https://www.nature.com/articles/ni.2588 Understanding immunosenescence to improve responses to vaccines.] Nature immunology. 2013 May;14(5):428.</ref>. This was attributed to a functional decline in the innate and adaptive immune system due to ageing. One physiological change in innate immunity due to ageing is the upregulation of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, C-reactive protein, and others<ref name=":10" />. Such a chronic pro-inflammatory state can lead to anorexia, nutritional impairment, muscle weakness, and weight loss, all of which can contribute to infections in older adults<ref>Franceschi C, Campisi J. Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences. 2014 Jun 1;69(Suppl_1):S4-9.</ref>. In addition to ageing immunosensitivity, many organs in the body undergo physiological changes that can predispose older adults to infection. Thus, any of the above symptoms may necessitate the need to suspect infection in older adults. | ||
'''Health care settings''' | '''Health care settings''' | ||
Due to the | Due to the unique needs of older adults, there are a variety of settings in which they may reside or seek care. Among common places of residence are family homes, senior apartments, older adult day care centers, long-term care facilities, acute care, rehabilitation centers and home care. Some of these selected settings will therefore be discussed with respect to infection control and challenges in older adults. | ||
'''Acute care | '''Acute care centers''' | ||
Older adults often | Older adults often reside in acute care centers due to the presence of comorbidities. Infection control challenges at this center include poor assessment of the infection status of older adults by physician prior to transfer to acute centers and poor record of comorbidity and drug resistance pathogens. Another challenge is the atypical clinical findings of infection among this population. For instance, an older adult with pneumonia may be more likely to present with confusion and functional deterioration than shortness of breath or new cough, and that may result in delayed diagnosis, resulting in inappropriate intervention and ultimately a delay in effective interventions<ref name=":11">Mody L. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3061471/ Infection control issues in older adults. Clinics in geriatric medicine.] 2007 Aug 1;23(3):499-514.</ref>. | ||
'''Nursing homes''' | '''Nursing homes''' | ||
Residents of nursing homes are susceptible to infectious diseases due to the following factors: host factors, structural concerns and process factors | Residents of nursing homes are susceptible to infectious diseases due to the following factors: host factors, structural concerns and process factors<ref name=":11" /><ref>High KP, Juthani-Mehta M, Quagliarello VJ. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3083824/ Infectious diseases in the nursing home setting: challenges and opportunities for clinical investigation.] Clinical infectious diseases. 2010 Oct 15;51(8):931-6.</ref>. Host factors that make older adults susceptible to infectious diseases include immunosensecence, multi-morbid conditions, impaired mental status, and incontinence. Also, some older adults may serve as hosts for antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. Structural control is the ability of the facility to have sufficient resources to manage the infection in the nursing home. This involves preparing and implementing programs to monitor infections at nursing homes. Process factors include a nursing home's ability to deliver effective health care delivery services. It includes having highly-educated personnel with knowledge of controlling infections among older adults. Process factors also include good diagnostic tools and effective infection monitors. In the case of affected older adults, unavailability of this equipment or problems in any of the above factors may result in delayed intervention or mismanagement of infection. | ||
'''Home healthcare and rehabilitation services''' | '''Home healthcare and rehabilitation services''' | ||
Home health services are becoming increasingly | Home health services are becoming increasingly utilized for older adults, as they require a longer period of medical attention in the home setting. Atypical clinical presentation that may mask the presence of infection in this population present challenges to controlling infection in older adults. This may further delay intervention in the affected individual as is deemed necessary. In rehabilitation services, older adults receiving treatment for hydrotherapy and functional rehabilitation should be considered for proper screening of infections because they may be asymptomatic<ref name=":11" />. | ||
'''Recommendations''' | '''Recommendations''' | ||
Control of infections in older adults is challenging | Control of infections in older adults is particularly challenging for clinicians and healthcare systems. Clinicians need to consider the multi-modal aspects of infection risk factors in older adults when conducting general assessments in order to prevent and reduce the spread of infection. | ||
== Conclusion == | == Conclusion == | ||
There is no one solution to controlling the spread of infectious diseases and | There is no one solution to controlling the spread of infectious diseases, and effective IPC indeed requires government intervention and collaboration between healthcare agencies, individuals and communities. Until certain risk factors are addressed and behaviours modified, the war against infectious diseases will continue to be a predominant and costly health issue around the world. | ||
== Resources == | == Resources == | ||
Revision as of 18:02, 27 March 2020
Original Editor '- Rewan Elsayed Elkanafany
Top Contributors - Shaimaa Eldib, Kim Jackson, Naomi O'Reilly, Richard Benes, Rachael Lowe, Lucinda hampton, Shreya Pavaskar, Wanda van Niekerk, Rewan Elsayed Elkanafany, Tarina van der Stockt, Jess Bell, Admin, Khloud Shreif, Tony Lowe, Stacy Schiurring, Tolulope Adeniji, Laura Ritchie, Simisola Ajeyalemi and Vidya Acharya
Introduction[edit | edit source]
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), infection prevention and control (IPC) is a scientific approach and practical solution designed to prevent harm caused by infection to patients and health workers. It is a subset of epidemiology, but also serves an essential function in infectious diseases, social sciences and global health[1].
Effective IPC is a public health issue that is fundamental in patient safety and health system strengthening. The prevention of healthcare-associated infections (HAI), epidemics (including the 2013-2016 Ebola virus disease outbreak), and pandemics of international concern (i.e. 2009 flu pandemic and the coronavirus disease 2019) are rooted in effective IPC measures[2]. A guiding principle on WHO's core components of IPC is that "access to health care services designed and managed to minimise the risks of avoidable HAI for patients and health care workers is a basic human right"[2].
The Spread of Infectious Disease[edit | edit source]
An infection is defined as the successful transmission of pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi that are spread:[3][4][5]
- Directly:
- From person to person.
- Through respiratory droplets (i.e. coughing or sneezing) or body fluids.
- During childbirth from mother to foetus.
- Indirectly:
- Via contaminated environmental sources, such as contaminated food or water.
- By a vector such as a mosquito or a tic.
- Through animal to human transmission (zoonotic diseases).
- Airborne transmission.
Epidemiological Triad[edit | edit source]
In humans, infections occur when an infectious microorganism enters the body, multiplies, and leads to a reaction in the body and potential infectious disease. The spread of infectious disease requires three variables, known as the epidemiological triad[6]:
- The agent - this microorganism that causes the infection and can be in the form of bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi.
- The host - the target of the disease.
- The environment - surroundings and conditions (these are external to the host).
Infection Spread in Healthcare[edit | edit source]
Healthcare facilities, whether hospitals or primary care clinics are an area with an elevated risk of disease transmission due to the presence and relative ratio of susceptible individuals. One in ten patients get an infection whilst receiving care[8] yet effective infection prevention and control reduces health care-associated infections by at least 30%[8]. In a healthcare setting, the three components required for infection spread are the following[9]:
- Source - places where infectious agents survive (e.g. sinks, hospital equipment, countertops, medical devices).
- Environment - patient care areas, sinks, hospital equipment, countertops, medical devices.
- People - patients, healthcare workers, or visitors.
- Susceptible person - someone (patient, healthcare worker, or visitor) who is not vaccinated or immune to a particular infectious disease, or an individual with a compromised immune system (ie. immunodeficient)[9].
- In addition, susceptibility can be heightened in individuals due to underlying medical conditions, medications, and necessary treatments and procedures that increase the risk of infection (e.g. surgery).
- Transmission -
Controlling Infectious Diseases Within Communities[edit | edit source]
Infection control and prevention is a global issue and there are many protocols and guidelines that can be followed to minimise the spread of infection between people, within a population and globally[2]. The first step when looking at infection control can start at the community level by changing behaviour, including:
- Regular hand washing.
- Using insect repellents.
- Ensuring up-to-date routine vaccinations and participating in immunisation programmes.
- Taking prescribed medications, such as antibiotics, as directed by health professionals.
- Social distancing - avoiding contact with others.
- Using condoms when having sex, especially with a new partner.
Other steps that can be taken to control the spread within communities include environmental measures such as:
- Modifying environments.
- Surveillance of diseases.
- Food safety.
- Air quality.
Medical Interventions[edit | edit source]
As well as simple steps to prevent and control infections, there are biochemical interventions that can be implemented to speed up the recovery process and in some cases prevent viral infections completely.[10] The development of antibiotics, antivirals and vaccinations have been shown to speed up recovery, slow down the progression and in some cases eradicate infectious diseases from entire populations.
Antibiotics[edit | edit source]
Antibiotics are prescribed for bacterial infections and support the body's natural defence system to eliminate the disease-causing bacterial agent. They are designed to either kill bacteria or stop them from reproducing, however poor use of antibiotics, over-prescribing and the mutation of bacteria has led the development of resistant bacteria[11]. In these cases, either stronger doses are required or the combination of one or more antibiotics.
Vaccinations[edit | edit source]
Vaccinations are designed to improve immunity to a particular disease. Vaccines work by introducing small amounts of the disease-causing virus or bacteria into the host, allowing them to build up natural immunity. The introduction of regular vaccines have slowed down and in some cases eradicated certain diseases such as polio, measles, mumps, whooping cough and rubeola (measles). There are also vaccinations for chickenpox but this is not given routinely and is reserved for those at risk of spreading the disease to those with a weakened immune system[12]. This is due to the fact that it is prevalent in children under 10 years of age and symptoms are usually mild; this method allows them to build up natural immunity and contributes to improving the immunisation of a community[13]. This type of protection is known as herd immunity[14].
Antivirals[edit | edit source]
For infectious diseases that are caused by viral agents such as influenza, HIV, herpes, and hepatitis B, antibiotics provide no defence and in these cases, antiviral medications are the most effective at slowing down the progression of the disease and boosting the immune system. Unfortunately, as with antibiotics, viruses can mutate over time and become resistant to these antiviral drugs[11].
Infection Control in Healthcare Facilities[edit | edit source]
Another important factor in controlling and preventing the control of infection is by improving practices in healthcare facilities. It is the duty of healthcare professionals worldwide to ensure they develop strategies and implement policies that protect those who may be immunocompromised in order to keep susceptible patients safe from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). Globally, up to 7% of patients in developed and 10% in developing countries will acquire at least one HAI[2][15].
HAIs are one of the most common detrimental effects in care delivery and both the endemic burden and the occurrence of epidemics are a major public health concern. HAIs have a significant impact on morbidity, mortality[16] and quality of life and present an economic burden at the societal level. However, a large proportion of HAI are preventable and there is a growing body of evidence to help raise awareness of the global burden of harm caused by these infections, including strategies to reduce their spread[9].
Steps to Improve Infection Control[edit | edit source]
There are two tiers of recommended precautions by the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)[17] to prevent the spread of infections in healthcare settings: (1) Standard Precautions and (2) Transmission-Based Precautions[18][5].
Standard Precautions for All Patient Care:
- Perform hand hygiene[19][20][21]
- Use personal protective equipment (PPE) to prevent exposure to infection
- Follow respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette principles
- Ensure appropriate patient placement and isolation precautions[22]
- Properly handle, clean, and disinfect patient care equipment and medical instruments
- Handle and sterilise textiles and laundry carefully
- Follow safe injection practices and proper handling of sharps/needles
- Ensure healthcare worker safety via IPC and post-exposure prophylaxis
- Prevention of intervention-related infections (catheter-associated urinary tract infections, intravascular catheter-related infections, surgical site infections)
- The implementation of the specific isolation precaution when diagnosing some syndromes[22]
- Improving the communication between health care workers especially when referring potentially contagious patients[23]
- In paediatric departments or ambulatory settings, efforts to decrease infection from contaminated toys and encouraging families to bring their own toys[23]
Transmission-Based Precautions[24] used in addition to Standard Precautions for patients with infectious disease to prevent transmission:
- Contact Precautions
- Droplet Precautions
- Airborne Precautions
Further details and guidelines for transmission-based and isolation precautions are provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):
Infection Control Programmes in Acute Care[edit | edit source]
The CDC[26] suggest that the assessment and management of infection control programs and practices in acute care hospital can be divided into 4 sections:
- Section 1: Facility Demographics
- Section 2: Infection Control Programme and Infrastructure
- Section 3: Direct Observation of Facility Practices (optional)
- Section 4: Infection Control Guidelines and Other Resources
They have produced a "Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Tool for Acute Care Hospitals" that is intended to assist in the assessment of infection control programs and practices in acute care hospitals.
Environmental Cleaning/Disinfection[edit | edit source]
The evidence suggests the important role of environmental cleaning in controlling the transmission of organisms (e.g.Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, norovirus, Clostridium difficile and acinetobacter) especially in hospitals and health- care settings[27]
If an individual with a suspected or confirmed case of infectious disease has attended your clinic, all surfaces that the person has come into contact with must be cleaned.
- The room where they were placed/isolated should not be cleaned or used for one hour and the door to the room should remain shut.
- The person assigned to clean the room should wear gloves (disposable single-use nitrile or household gloves) and a disposable apron (if one is available) then physically clean the environment and furniture using a household detergent solution followed by a disinfectant or combined household detergent and disinfectant, for example, one that contains a hypochlorite (bleach solution)[28]. Products with these specifications are available in different formats including wipes.
- No special cleaning of walls or floors is required.
- Pay special attention to frequently touched flat surfaces, backs of chairs, couches, door handles or any surfaces that the affected person has touched.
- Discard waste (including used tissues, disposable cleaning cloths) into a healthcare risk waste bag.
- Remove the disposable plastic apron (if worn) and gloves and discard into a healthcare risk waste bag.
- If a healthcare risk waste bag (yellow) is not available, place the waste in a small household waste bag and tie securely. Do not overfill. Then place the bag in a second household waste bag and tie securely. Store in a safe location.If the case is not confirmed the waste can be disposed of as per usual.If a case is confirmed public health will then advise you what to do with the waste.
- Once this process has been completed and all surfaces are dry the room can be put back into use.
Infection Control Programmes Globally[edit | edit source]
The WHO guidelines[2] on the core components of IPC programmes at the national and facility level aim to enhance the capacity of countries to develop and implement effective technical and behaviour modifying interventions. They form a key part of WHO strategies to prevent current and future threats from infectious diseases such as Ebola, strengthen health service resilience, help combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and improve the overall quality of health care delivery. They are also intended to support countries in the development of their own national protocols for IPC and AMR action plans and to support health care facilities as they develop or strengthen their own approaches to IPC.
The "Executive Summary of the Minimum Requirements by Core Component" provides a good summary to present and promote the minimum requirements for IPC programmes at the national and health care facility level, identified by expert consensus according to available evidence and in the context of the WHO core components.
Improving Social Determinants[edit | edit source]
Another important factor to consider in the control of infectious diseases is to address and improve social determinants of health within societies. There is a direct link between a person's health and their environment. WHO has identified three "common interventions" for improving health conditions worldwide[29]:
- Education - there is a strong link between health and education[30].
- Social Protection - access to affordable health care and some form of social security system can also determine the health and behaviours in a community[31].
- Urban Development - how our villages, towns and cities are designed can have a big impact on health and the spread of diseases. Living in overcrowded environments or in housing that is damp and/or that doesn't have adequate facilities and sanitation can increase the spread of infectious diseases[32].
Infection Control in Older Adults[edit | edit source]
Infectious diseases were the leading cause of death in older adults until the 20th century and this is because symptoms such as leukocytosis and fever are generally absent[33]. Pneumonia, flu and other infectious diseases (including COVID-19) have resulted in high mortality rates among older adults. Certain bacterial infections are also becoming resistant to antibiotic agents that were previously effective, leading to multi-drug resistant bacteria.[33] There are also challenges with specific vaccines or anti-viral therapy for some infectious conditions, including the class of coronaviruses that include SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. Active infection is a challenge not only for older adults with infectious diseases, but also for health care providers[34]. It is therefore essential for clinicians, such as physiotherapists who manage older adults in different settings, to identify challenges in the control of infection in older adults and measures to stop the spread of infection.
Infection control challenges in older adults[edit | edit source]
This section will focus on issues related to infection control in older adults, taking into account physiological changes and health care settings.
Physiological changes
Immunosenescence describes an age-related poor immune function that predisposes older adults to infectious diseases[35]. This was attributed to a functional decline in the innate and adaptive immune system due to ageing. One physiological change in innate immunity due to ageing is the upregulation of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, C-reactive protein, and others[35]. Such a chronic pro-inflammatory state can lead to anorexia, nutritional impairment, muscle weakness, and weight loss, all of which can contribute to infections in older adults[36]. In addition to ageing immunosensitivity, many organs in the body undergo physiological changes that can predispose older adults to infection. Thus, any of the above symptoms may necessitate the need to suspect infection in older adults.
Health care settings
Due to the unique needs of older adults, there are a variety of settings in which they may reside or seek care. Among common places of residence are family homes, senior apartments, older adult day care centers, long-term care facilities, acute care, rehabilitation centers and home care. Some of these selected settings will therefore be discussed with respect to infection control and challenges in older adults.
Acute care centers
Older adults often reside in acute care centers due to the presence of comorbidities. Infection control challenges at this center include poor assessment of the infection status of older adults by physician prior to transfer to acute centers and poor record of comorbidity and drug resistance pathogens. Another challenge is the atypical clinical findings of infection among this population. For instance, an older adult with pneumonia may be more likely to present with confusion and functional deterioration than shortness of breath or new cough, and that may result in delayed diagnosis, resulting in inappropriate intervention and ultimately a delay in effective interventions[37].
Nursing homes
Residents of nursing homes are susceptible to infectious diseases due to the following factors: host factors, structural concerns and process factors[37][38]. Host factors that make older adults susceptible to infectious diseases include immunosensecence, multi-morbid conditions, impaired mental status, and incontinence. Also, some older adults may serve as hosts for antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. Structural control is the ability of the facility to have sufficient resources to manage the infection in the nursing home. This involves preparing and implementing programs to monitor infections at nursing homes. Process factors include a nursing home's ability to deliver effective health care delivery services. It includes having highly-educated personnel with knowledge of controlling infections among older adults. Process factors also include good diagnostic tools and effective infection monitors. In the case of affected older adults, unavailability of this equipment or problems in any of the above factors may result in delayed intervention or mismanagement of infection.
Home healthcare and rehabilitation services
Home health services are becoming increasingly utilized for older adults, as they require a longer period of medical attention in the home setting. Atypical clinical presentation that may mask the presence of infection in this population present challenges to controlling infection in older adults. This may further delay intervention in the affected individual as is deemed necessary. In rehabilitation services, older adults receiving treatment for hydrotherapy and functional rehabilitation should be considered for proper screening of infections because they may be asymptomatic[37].
Recommendations
Control of infections in older adults is particularly challenging for clinicians and healthcare systems. Clinicians need to consider the multi-modal aspects of infection risk factors in older adults when conducting general assessments in order to prevent and reduce the spread of infection.
Conclusion[edit | edit source]
There is no one solution to controlling the spread of infectious diseases, and effective IPC indeed requires government intervention and collaboration between healthcare agencies, individuals and communities. Until certain risk factors are addressed and behaviours modified, the war against infectious diseases will continue to be a predominant and costly health issue around the world.
Resources[edit | edit source]
The following resources expand further on the four sections mentioned above:
- Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Tool for Acute Care Hospitals - CDC
- IPAC Checklist for Clinical Office Practice: Core Elements - Public Health Ontario
- Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Infection prevention and control / WASH - WHO
- Covid-19 Infection prevention and control - GOV.UK
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ WHO.infection prevention&control .Available from:https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/about/ipc/en/
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 World Health Organization. Guidelines on core components of infection prevention and control programmes at the national and acute health care facility level. World Health Organization; 2016.
- ↑ Mayhall CG. Hospital epidemiology and infection control. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012 Feb 20.
- ↑ CDC centers for disease control and prevention.infection control. Available from:https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/index.html
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Wilson J. Infection control in clinical practice. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2006 Jun 21.
- ↑ US Department of Health and Human Services. Principles of Epidemiology in Public Health Practice Third Edition An Introduction to Applied Epidemiology and Biostatistics. Chapter 8, Lesson 1. Atlanta, Georgia, USA Accessed 15 March 2020
- ↑ Let's Learn Public Health.Infectious Diseases - How do we control them? Published on 26 February 2017. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JWku3Kjpq0&feature=emb_logo. [last accessed 17 March 2020]
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 World Health Organisation. Infection prevention and control https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/en/ Accessed 17 March 2020
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 How Infections Spread | Infection Control | CDC [Internet]. Cdc.gov. 2020 [cited 15 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/spread/index.html
- ↑ Le Calvez H, Yu M, Fang F. Biochemical prevention and treatment of viral infections–A new paradigm in medicine for infectious diseases. Virology journal. 2004 Dec 1;1(1):12.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Drexler M, Institute of Medicine (US). What You Need to Know About Infectious Disease. Chapter 4. National Academies Press (US), Washington (DC); 2010.
- ↑ Chickenpox vaccine overview. NHS Website. Accessed 15 March 2020
- ↑ Brisson, M., & Edmunds, W. J. (2003). Economic Evaluation of Vaccination Programs: The Impact of Herd-Immunity. Medical Decision Making, 23(1), 76–82. doi:10.1177/0272989x02239651
- ↑ Fine PE. Herd immunity: history, theory, practice. Epidemiologic reviews. 1993 Jan 1;15(2):265-302.
- ↑ Sydnor ER, Perl TM. Hospital epidemiology and infection control in acute-care settings. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2011 Jan 1;24(1):141-73.
- ↑ Borg MA. Cultural determinants of infection control behaviour: understanding drivers and implementing effective change. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2014 Mar 1;86(3):161-8.
- ↑ Dancer SJ. Control of transmission of infection in hospitals requires more than clean hands. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 2010 Sep;31(9):958-60.
- ↑ Infection Control Basics | Infection Control | CDC [Internet]. Cdc.gov. 2020 [cited 15 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/basics/index.html
- ↑ Pittet D. The Lowbury lecture: behaviour in infection control. Journal of hospital infection. 2004 Sep 1;58(1):1-3.
- ↑ Boyce JM, Pittet D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 2002 Dec;23(S12):S3-40.
- ↑ Dancer SJ. Control of transmission of infection in hospitals requires more than clean hands. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 2010 Sep;31(9):958-60.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Rathore MH, Jackson MA, Committee on Infectious Diseases. Infection prevention and control in pediatric ambulatory settings. Pediatrics. 2017 Nov 1;140(5):e20172857.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 McBride DL. Updated Guidelines on Infection Prevention in Pediatric Ambulatory Settings. Journal of pediatric nursing. 2018 Jan.
- ↑ Transmission-Based Precautions | Basics | Infection Control | CDC” [Internet]. Cdc.gov. 2020 [cited 15 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/basics/transmission-based-precautions.html
- ↑ Health portal Infection control, Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QgqTW0FjN08 (last accessed 22.4.2019)
- ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prvention. Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Tool for Acute Care Hospitals https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/pdf/icar/hospital.pdf Accessed 17 March 2020
- ↑ Dancer SJ. The role of environmental cleaning in the control of hospital-acquired infection. Journal of hospital Infection. 2009 Dec 1;73(4):378-85.
- ↑ Wilcox MH, Fawley WN, Wigglesworth N, Parnell P, Verity P, Freeman J. Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2003 Jun 1;54(2):109-14.
- ↑ World Health Organization (2013). The economics of social determinants of health and health inequalities: a resource book (PDF). World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-154862-5
- ↑ Von dem Knesebeck O, Verde PE, Dragano N. Education and health in 22 European countries. Social science & medicine. 2006 Sep 1;63(5):1344-51.
- ↑ Chung H, Muntaner C. Welfare state matters: a typological multilevel analysis of wealthy countries. Health Policy, 2007, 80(2):328–339
- ↑ Thomson H, Atkinson R, Petticrew M, Kearns A. Do urban regeneration programmes improve public health and reduce health inequalities? A synthesis of the evidence from UK policy and practice (1980–2004). Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. 2006 Feb 1;60(2):108-15.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Mouton CP, Bazaldua OV, Pierce B, Espino DV. Common infections in older adults. American family physician. 2001 Jan 15;63(2):257.
- ↑ El Chakhtoura NG, Bonomo RA, Jump RL. Influence of aging and environment on presentation of infection in older adults. Infectious Disease Clinics. 2017 Dec 1;31(4):593-608.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM. Understanding immunosenescence to improve responses to vaccines. Nature immunology. 2013 May;14(5):428.
- ↑ Franceschi C, Campisi J. Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences. 2014 Jun 1;69(Suppl_1):S4-9.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Mody L. Infection control issues in older adults. Clinics in geriatric medicine. 2007 Aug 1;23(3):499-514.
- ↑ High KP, Juthani-Mehta M, Quagliarello VJ. Infectious diseases in the nursing home setting: challenges and opportunities for clinical investigation. Clinical infectious diseases. 2010 Oct 15;51(8):931-6.
