Assessment Before Moving and Handling

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Introduction

The ability to think critically and interpret patient behaviours and physiologic changes is essential. The skills of physical assessment are powerful tools for detecting both subtle and obvious changes in a patient’s health.

Cognitive Status

Orientation, Concentration, Memory, Ability to Follow Instructions

Emotional Status

Confusion, Agitation, Aggression, Depression, Cooperation,

Medical Status

Cardiovascular Status

Pulses and Heart Rate

Pulse rate is defined as the wave of blood in the artery created by contraction of the left ventricle during a cardiac cycle. The most common sites of measuring the peripheral pulses are the radial pulse, ulnar pulse, brachial pulse in the upper extremity, and the posterior tibialis or the dorsalis pedis pulse as well as the femoral pulse in the lower extremity. Clinicians also measure the carotid pulse in the neck. In day to day practice, the radial pulse is the most frequently used site for checking the peripheral pulse, where the pulse is palpated on the radial aspect of the forearm, just proximal to the wrist joint.

1. Rate:
   • The normal range used in an adult is between 60 to 100 beats /minute with rates above 100 beats/minute and rates and below 60 beats per minute, referred to as tachycardia and bradycardia, respectively. Changes in the rate of the pulse, along with changes in respiration is called sinus arrhythmia. In sinus arrhythmia, the pulse rate becomes faster during inspiration and slows down during expiration.
2. Rhythm:
   • Assessing whether the rhythm of the pulse is regular or irregular is essential. The pulse could be regular, irregular, or irregularly irregular. Irregularly irregular pattern is more commonly indicative of processes like atrial flutter or atrial fibrillation.
3. Volume:
   • Assessing the volume of the pulse is equally essential. A low volume pulse could be indicative of inadequate tissue perfusion; this can be a crucial indicator of indirect prediction of the systolic blood pressure of the patient.
4. Symmetry:
   • Checking for symmetry of the pulses is important as asymmetrical pulses could be seen in conditions like aortic dissection, aortic coarctation, Takayasu arteritis, and subclavian steal syndrome.
5. Amplitude and Rate of Increase:  
   • Low amplitude and low rate of increase could be seen in conditions like aortic stenosis, besides weak perfusion states. High amplitude and rapid rise can be indicative of conditions like aortic regurgitation, mitral regurgitation, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the force of circulating blood on the walls of the arteries, mainly in large arteries of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure incorporates two measurements:

1. Systolic Pressure
   • Describes the maximum pressure in the large arteries when the heart contracts to propel blood through the body.
   • Measured when the heart beats
2. Diastolic Pressure
   • Describes the lowest pressure within the large arteries when the heart relaxes between beats.
   • Measured between heart beats.

Blood pressure is traditionally assessed using auscultation with a mercury-tube sphygmomanometer measured in millimeters of mercury and expressed in terms of systolic pressure over diastolic pressure e.g. 120/60. However, semiautomated and automated devices that use the oscillometry method, which detects the amplitude of the blood pressure oscillations on the arterial wall, have become widely used in daily clinical practice. The brachial artery is the most common site for BP measurement.

Table.1 Normative Blood Pressure Measurements

Reduce Accuracy	Systolic	Diastolic
Hypotension	<90	<60
Normal	90 - 129	60 - 79
Hypertension; Stage 1	130 - 139	80 - 89
Hyoertension: Stage 2	140 - 179	90 - 109
Hypertension: Critical	>180	>110

Respiratory Status

Respiratory Rate

The respiratory rate, which is the number of breaths per minute, is defined as the one breath to each movement of air in and out of the lungs. The normal breathing rate is about 12 to 20 beats per minute in an average adult. In paediatrics age group, the respiratory rate is dependant on the age of the child.

1. Rates:
   • Rates higher or lower than expected are termed as tachypnea and bradypnea, respectively. Tachypnea described as a respiratory rate more than 20 beats per minute could occur in physiological conditions like exercise, emotional changes, pregnancy, and pathological conditions like pain, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, asthma, etc. Bradypnea which is ventilation less than 12 breaths/minute can occur due to worsening of any underlying respiratory condition leading to respiratory failure or due to usage of central nervous system depressants like alcohol, narcotics, benzodiazepines, or metabolic derangements. Apnea is the complete cessation of airflow to the lungs for a total of 15 seconds which may appear in cardiopulmonary arrests, airway obstructions, the overdose of narcotics and benzodiazepines.
2. Depth of Breathing:
   • Hyperpnea is described as an increase in the depth of breathing. Hyperventilation, on the other hand, is described as both an increase in the rate and depth of breathing and hypoventilation describes the decreased rate and depth of ventilation. Depth of breathing involves what muscle groups they are using—for example, the sternocleidomastoid (accessory muscles) and abdominal muscles—the movement of the chest wall in terms of symmetry. The inability to speak in full sentences or increased effort to speak is an indicator of discomfort when breathing.

Oxygen Saturation

Oxygen saturation is a crucial measure of how well the lungs are working, and is considered an essential element to assess and monitor a patient for positioning, transferring or mobilising. The term oxygen saturation refers to the percentage of oxygen circulating in an individuals blood.

Pulse oximetry is a painless, noninvasive method of measuring the saturation of oxygen (SpO2) in a person’s blood. Most pulse oximeters are accurate to within 2% to 4% of the actual blood oxygen saturation level, which means that a pulse oximeter reading may be anywhere from 2% to 4% higher or lower than the actual oxygen level in arterial blood. For example, a 92% oxygen saturation on the pulse oximeter can actually be between 88 to 96% depending on the accuracy of the specific pulse oximeter.

Table.2 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pulse Oximetry

Reduce Accuracy	Increase Accuracy
Cold Hands	Warm Up Skin
Poor Circulation	Apply Topical Vasodilator
Wearing Nail Polish Especially Darker Colours	Hand Below Level of Heart
Wearing Artifical Nails	Change Probe Location Ear v Finger
Skin Pigment Reduces with Darker Skin Pigmentation	Different Probe Type
Skin Thickness
Excessive Motion or Shaking
Very Low Oxygen Saturation <80%
Smoking

Breathing Pattern

There are many conditions which are based on the variation in the pattern of breathing. Biot’s respiration is a condition where there are periods of increased rate and depth of breathing, followed by periods of no breathing or apnea. Cheyne-Stokes respiration is a peculiar pattern of breathing where there is an increase in the depth of ventilation followed by periods of no breathing or apnea. Kussmaul’s breathing refers to the increased depth of ventilation, although the rate remains regular. Orthopnea refers to difficulty in respiration occurring on lying horizontal but gets better when the patient sits up or stands. Paradoxical ventilation refers to the inward movement of the abdominal or chest wall during inspiration, and outward movement during expiration, which is seen in cases of diaphragmatic paralysis, muscle fatigue, trauma to the chest wall.

Work of Breathing

Pain

Determining pain is an important component of a physical assessment. When assessing pain, it is important to recognise the differences between acute and persistent/chronic pain and the implications for assessment and management of the patient. Pain is a subjective experience, and self-report of pain is the most reliable indicator of a patient’s experience. Always assess pain at the beginning of a physical health assessment to determine the patient’s comfort level and potential need for pain comfort measures.

Medication

Attachments

Environment

Resources

References