CBT Approach to Chronic Low Back Pain

Introduction[edit | edit source]

Low back pain bound with ropes.jpg

In recent years, Chronic Low Back Pain (CLBP) has been extensively researched to understand the confounding variables and barriers that affect people’s recovery rates. Throughout these years, an extensive amount of research has studied the role of psychological issues in the development and maintenance of chronic low back pain[1]. Studies during this time have suggested that an increasingly negative orientation toward pain and fear of movement, or re-injury, are highly important in the aetiology of chronic low back pain [2]. Therefore it has been suggested that a mechanical structure is not always the origin of chronic low back pain, but has a greater psychological association instead. Clinicians identify psychological factors as Yellow Flags.

Yellow Flags[edit | edit source]

Flags in Physiotherapy are a marker of risk factors regarding musculoskeletal diseases and disorders. Yellow Flags are an indication of Psychosocial factors (Depression, Anxiety etc..) and the patient’s beliefs about their condition .
While performing a Yellow Flag assessment, the following should be acknowledged:

Yellow flag.png


Attitudes/Beliefs – What does the patient think to be the problem and do they have a positive or negative attitude to the pain and potential treatment?
Behaviour – Has the patient changed their behaviour to the pain? Have they reduced activity or compensating for certain movements. Early signs of catastrophising and fear-avoidance?
Compensation – Are they awaiting a claim due to a potential accident? Is this placing unnecessary stress on their life? .
Diagnosis/Treatment – Has the language that has been used had an effect on patient thoughts? Have they had previous treatment for the pain before, and was there a conflicting diagnosis? This could cause the patient to over-think the issue, leading to catastrophising and fear-avoidance.
Emotions – Does the patient have any underlying emotional issues that could lead to an increased potential for chronic pain? Collect a thorough background on their psychological history.
Family – How are the patient’s family reacting to their injury? Are they being under-supportive or over-supportive, both of which can effect the patient’s concept of their pain
Work – Are they currently off work? Financial issues could potentially arise? What are the patient’s thoughts about their working environment?


Another psychological issue associated with CLBP is catastrophizing.  This is outlined through the Fear Avoidance Model (Shown Below).

Fear-Avoidance Model[edit | edit source]

Fear is the emotional reaction to a specific, identifiable and immediate threat, such as a dangerous injury [3].  Fear may protect the individual from impeding danger as it instigates the defensive behaviour that is associated with the fight or flight response [4].
The Fear-Avoidance Model was designed to identify and explain why chronic low back pain problems, and associated disability, develop in members of the population suffering from an onset of low back pain [5]. This model indicates that a person suffering from pain will undergo one of two different pathways (Fig.1).

Fig.1 Fear Avoidance Model

Fig.1 Fear Avoidance Model [6]

This shows that when pain/injury occurs, people will take the path of continuing their independence without negative thoughts of the pain they are suffering from, therefore leading them to accept that they have this pain that ultimately accumulates to a faster recovery. In contrast to this, a cycle can be initiated if the pain is misinterpreted in a catastrophising manner. It has been recognised that these thoughts can lead on to pain-related fear and associated safety seeking behaviours, such as avoidance. However, this could cause the pain to become worse and enter a chronic phase due to the disuse and disability.  This in turn can lower the threshold at which the person will experience pain.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) [edit | edit source]

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a method that can help manage problems by changing the way patients would think and behave. It is not designed to remove any problems but help manage them in a positive manner [7] [8].

Behaviour therapy (BT) was developed in the 1950’s independently in three countries: South Africa, USA and England [9]. It was further developed to Cognitive Therapy (CT) in the 1970’s by Dr Aaron Beck with its main application on people with depression, anxiety and eating disorders [7] [10]. However, the main evidence today focuses on CBT, after the merging of BT and CT in the late 80’s [11].


Fig.2 - Breakdown of CBT theory

Fig.2 - Breakdown of CBT theory


CBT model (2).png

Fig.3 - Factors involved within the Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Model

Aaron Beck and Christine Padesky first recognised this CBT model in the 1970s [12].

How it is used:

  • Negative thoughts (e.g., "My back pain is uncontrollable" --> Negative feelings (e.g., depression, anger) and maladaptive health behaviours (e.g., skipping treatment sessions) --> Reinforcing negative cycle.

If one negative thought can be changed or better understood, then it can break down this negative cycle. This can be addressed through education and methods to manage symptoms [12].

Biopsychosocial Model[edit | edit source]

The Biopsychosocial model is a conceptual model that suggests that in understanding a person's medical condition it is not simply the biological factors to consider, but also the psychological and social factors [13]. It is commonly used in chronic pain, with the view that the pain is a psychophysiological behaviour pattern that cannot be categorised into biological, psychological, or social factors alone. There are suggestions that physiotherapy should integrate psychological treatment to address all components comprising the experience of chronic pain. The diagram below shows an example of this model.


Biopsychosocial-model-of-health.PNG


Fig.4 - Diagram of the Biopsychosocial model[14]

Principles of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy[edit | edit source]

There are 3 basic principles of CBT [15]:


• How people think about their situations, influences how they feel and what they do.
• Problems like depression, anxiety and self-defeating behaviour can be broken down by problematic thought patterns.
• People can learn to identify distorted thinking, change their outlook, take constructive action, and feel better.

Advantages and Disadvantages [edit | edit source]

Table showing the advantages and disadvantages of CBT
Advantages
Disadvantages
The highly structured nature of CBT means it can be provided in different formats, including in groups, self-help books and computer programs.
Does not use a holistic approach to a patient’s situation.
Skills learnt through CBT are useful, practical and helpful.  These strategies can be incorporated into daily lifestyle and benefit the management with future stresses and difficulties.
Due to the structured nature of CBT, it may not be suitable for people with more complex mental health needs or learning difficulties.
CBT can be sustained long term
Commitment is required from the patient. A therapist can help and advise them, but may be unsuccessful without co-operation from the patient.

Outcome Measures[edit | edit source]

Outcome Measures for CBT are varied regarding their intended use. Certain outcome measures will be used for:

• Pain
• Disability
• Depression/Anxiety
• Patient Thought’s and Beliefs

Examples of Outcome Measures are shown below.

Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire[edit | edit source]

 Please see Roland Morris

Pain Anxiety Symptom Scale (PASS)[edit | edit source]

The Pain Anxiety Symptom Scale (PASS) is used as a measure to evaluate the patients ‘fear of pain’. It is intended to provide a means of ‘fear of pain’ in exaggerated or persistent pain behaviours [16]. This was created because anxious responses can lead to avoidance behaviours that can then lead to chronic pain. The Pain Anxiety Symptom Scale has been classed as having a high level of validity when used in clinical practice [17].

Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire[edit | edit source]

The Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire is a 20-Item Scale that covers two components; Activity Engagement and Pain Willingness. Activity Engagement is used in accordance to measure patient’s participation in activities regardless of pain, while Pain Willingness assesses relative absence of attempts to control or avoid pain[18]. This outcome measure has been found to have a good scale of reliability [19].

Screen Shot 2014-01-19 at 10.38.31.png


Fig. 5 Quotes from experienced clinicians

Cognitive Therapy[edit | edit source]

Cognitive Therapy was developed and pioneered by Dr Aaron Beck in the 1960’s. During this time, it was employed as an information-processing model to understand and treat psychopathological conditions.

Cognitive Therapy - The Theory[edit | edit source]

Cognitive Therapy (CT), as mentioned above, is one part of the entire CBT model and an approach to treating chronic pain. This process proposes that distorted or dysfunctional thinking can influence a patient’s mood and psychological beliefs, which has been found to coincide with chronic pain [7] [20] [21].

This treatment involves the identification and replacement of misrepresented thoughts and beliefs that a patient could be feeling. Cognitive Therapy is a problem-solving treatment based on the principle that we perceive situations, influences how we feel about them [22].

The effectiveness of CT has shown positive outcomes regarding depression and anxiety disorders. Alongside these psychological benefits, it has provided positive results concerning certain medical issues, including chronic fatigue syndrome and other chronic pain disorders [23].

Cognitive-graphic.gif
Fig.6 Concept of Cogntive Therapy

Principles of Cognitive Therapy[edit | edit source]

There are 5 principles of CT that patients learn throughout each individual session:


• Distinguishing between thoughts and feelings
• Becoming aware of the ways that thoughts can influence feelings, that can be detrimental and harmful.
• Learning about thoughts that seem to occur automatically, without even realising how they may affect emotions.
• Critical evaluation of whether these automatic assumptions are accurate.
• Developing skills to notice, interrupt, and correct these thoughts independently [24].

Cognitive Therapy on Chronic Low Back Pain- The Evidence[edit | edit source]

Limited evidence of Cognitive Therapy on the effect of Chronic Low Back Pain is available [25].  The following table is a breakdown of a randomised controlled trial on CT for Chronic Low Back Pain.

Screen Shot 2014-01-17 at 15.52.55.png

Behavioural Therapy [edit | edit source]

Behavioural Therapy (BT) was developed in the 1950's. It was originally used to treat psychological issues such as depression, but has been used more recently to treat other conditions such as CLBP.

Behavioural Therapy is split into two areas - Operant Therapy and Respondant Therapy. Both parts of Behvioural Therapy look at changing detremental behaviours to more healthy and positive behaviours [26].

Operant Therapy[edit | edit source]

Operant therapy is based on the Operant Conditioning principles, first proposed by Skinner (1953) in his book, Science and Human Behaviour. The Operant behavioural model was first applied to CLBP by Fordyce (1976), in his book Behavioural Methods for Chronic pain and Illness [27].

Operant Therapy - The Theory[edit | edit source]

Operant Behavioural Therapy or Operant Conditioning proposes that pain behaviours learnt by an individual can be reinforced by external factors [27] [28]. These external factors are positive reinforcements of the pain behaviours, used by the patient, which can be detrimental to their long term health. These factors often include detrimental attention from family, medical personnel, dependency on pain medication and excessive rest. Therefore, operant behavioural therapy looks at removing these damaging, positive reinforcements, and replacing them with more healthy behaviour. Operant behavioural techniques often involve the use of increased exercise levels, and work to meet targets set by the patient and clinician. This method can also be helped by incorporating the family and friends of the patient, to maintain and monitor the change back to more healthy behaviours. With each goal that is achieved, the patient is positively reinforced by all staff and personnel involved [27].

[29]

Uses in Clinical Practice[edit | edit source]

Operant Therapy is used in a variety of clinical settings [28]. Operant therapy is primarily used to treat psychological issues, such as depression and anxiety. It has also been used as part of a Multi-disciplinary approach to treating long term conditions, such as CLBP and Fibromyalgia [30]; [27]. Thieme et al. (2007) looked at the effects of Operant Behaviour therapy on 125 Fibromyalgia patients. After a 12 month follow up, it showed that 53.5% of patients in the Operant Therapy group had meaningful improvements in pain intensity.

Respondent Therapy - The Theory[edit | edit source]

Respondent therapy is an approach to behavioural therapy with aims to modify the body’s physiological response to pain, by reducing muscular tension [27]. The respondent model, as described by Gentry and Bernal (1977) [31], theorises that physical damage can lead to a pain-tension cycle. 

Paintension nick.png

                                                Fig. 7 Diagram to represent the Pain-Tension Cycle in a simplified manner. 

Pain-Tension Cycle [edit | edit source]

This cycle is viewed as a cause and a result of muscular tension [32]. It states that whilst avoidance of movement may be used to reduce pain, the resulting decreased mobility may increase the tension, and thus pain furthermore. Respondent therapy aims to disrupt this cycle using methods such as relaxation, progressive relaxation, applied relaxation and Electromyographic (EMG) feedback. These methods are used to reduce the muscular tension, relieving anxiety and thus the subsequent pain [32] [33].

Techniques for Respondent Therapy[edit | edit source]


Progressive relaxation is a technique for learning to monitor and control the state of muscular tension [34]. It was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. The technique involves learning to monitor tension in each specific muscle group in the body by deliberately inducing tension in each group. Upon releasing this tension, attention is paid to the contrast between tension and relaxation. It is to be noted that these are not considered to be exercises or hypnotism.

The “Applied Relaxation” protocol developed in Sweden, by the psychologist Lars-Goran Öst, modified from Jacobson’s progressive relaxation technique. It expands on progressive relaxation but involves attempting to relax more quickly and in different scenarios [35].

EMG feedback, in respondent therapy, is used as a point of reference for a patient to objectify their muscle relaxation techniques [36]. It uses several surface electrodes to detect the action potentials of muscles, giving appropriate feedback as to the state of muscular contraction.

Evidence for Respondent Therapy[edit | edit source]


Several studies have compared respondent therapy using progressive relaxation to a placebo [37] [38] [25]. Results showed favourable effects of the active treatment, which was not statistically significant, as the waiting list control also showed improvements.

Four studies have identified respondent therapy with EMG feedback against a placebo[39]; [40]; [36]; [37]). These studies showed slightly favourable results for the intervention, but produced no significant results.

Evidence of effectiveness against other forms of therapy[edit | edit source]

One study compared respondent therapy against self-hypnosis [41].  It concluded that neither intervention were superior to the other due its non-significant results compared to the placebo.

Evidence of effectiveness of respondent therapy in addition to other treatments[edit | edit source]

One study compared a combination of respondent therapy with EMG feedback, and physiotherapy, with physiotherapy alone [42].  Significant differences noted in favour of the combined intervention for pain post-treatment, after 6 weeks and 6 months.

Cognitive vs Behavioural Therapy on CLBP - The Evidence[edit | edit source]

A study [43] compared cognitive and operant therapy. Both groups also received physiotherapy is the form of an exercise programme and education, for the management of back pain. The operant therapy group reported a significant improvement in general function status, but did not find the same results for pain intensity. The quality of this study is in question, as a systematic review by Middlekoop et al,. (2011) [44] reported that the study has a high risk of bias.

Two studies [38] [25] compared cognitive therapy to respondent therapy, in the form of progressive relaxation training. Only one of these studies[25] reported on long-term pain and disability. These outcomes were not statistically significant between the groups. The review by Middelkoop et al. (2011)[44] also found these studies to have a high risk of bias.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy on Chronic Low Back Pain - The Evidence[edit | edit source]

Previous research has shown CBT to be an effective form of therapy on Chronic Low Back Pain (CLBP). Negative Outcomes in Research[edit | edit source]

CBT Critique 1.1.1.jpg

CBT Critique 3.1.jpg

Positive Outcomes in Research[edit | edit source]

CBT Critique 2.1.jpg

CBT Critique 4.1.jpg

References[edit | edit source]

  1. Grotle, M., Vollestad, N., Veierod, M., Ivar Brox, J., 2004. Fear-avoidance beliefs and distress in relation to disability in acute and chronic low back pain. Pain, 112(3): 343-52
  2. Susan, H., Picavet, J., Vlaeyen, W.S., Schouten, J., 2002. Pain Catastrophizing and Kinesiophobia: Predictors of Chronic Low Back Pain. American Journal of Epidemiology, 156(11): 1028-1034
  3. Rachman, S., 1998. Anxiety. Psychological Press: Hove
  4. Cannon, W. B., 1929. Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage: an account of recent researches into the functions of emotional excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York
  5. Leeuw, M., Goossens, E.J.B., Linton, S., Crombez, G., Boersma, K., Vlaeyen, J., 2007. The Fear-Avoidance Model of Musculoskeletal Pain: Current State of Scientific Evidence. Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 30(1): 77-94
  6. www.psychomaticmedicine.org (2014) Fear Avoidance Model (photograph). Available at: http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content-nw/full/67/5/783/F117 (Accessed 11th January 2014)
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 Beck, J., 1995. Cognitive Therapy: Basics and Beyond. Guildford Press: New York
  8. NHS Choices, 2012. Cognitive behavioural therapy. [online] Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cognitive-behavioural-therapy/Pages/Introduction.aspx[Accessed 8th Jan 2014]
  9. Öst, L.G., 2008. Efficacy of the third wave of behavioral therapies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Behaviour research and therapy, 46(3): 296–321
  10. Hayes, S.C., 2004. Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy, 35: 639–665
  11. Roth, A., Fonagy, P. “What works for whom? A critical review of psychotherapy research”. 2nd ed. Guilford Press: New York 2005
  12. 12.0 12.1 Beck, A.T., 1976. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: International Universities Press
  13. Gatchel, Robert J., Peng, Yuan Bo, Peters, Madelon, L.; Fuchs, Perry, N.; Turk, Dennis C. 2007 The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directionsfckLR Psychological Bulletin, Vol 133(4), 581-624
  14. Butler, A., 2010. What is Cognitive Therapy? [online] Available at: drandrewbutler.com/5801.html [accessed 8 January 2014]
  15. McCracken, L.M., Zayfert, C. and Gross, R.T. (1992) The Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale: Development and Validation of a scale to measure fear of pain. Pain, 50(1), 67-73.
  16. Burns, J.W., Mullen, J.T., Higdon, L.J., Wei, J.M. and Lanksy, D. (2000) Validity of the pain anxiety symptoms scale (PASS): Prediction of physical capacity variables. Pain, 84(2-3), 247-252.
  17. Bernini, O., Pennato, T., Cosci, F. and Beerocal, C. (2010) The psychometric properties of the chronic pain acceptance questionnaire in Italian patients with chronic pain. Journal of Health Psychology, 15(8), 1236-1245
  18. Fish, R.A., McGuire, B., Hogan, M., Morrison, T.G. and Stewart, I. (2010) Validation of the chronic pain acceptance questionnaire (CPAQ) in an Internet sample and development and preliminary validation of the CPAQ-8. Pain, 149(3), 435-443.
  19. Dersh, J., Polatin, P.B., Gatchel, R.J. Chronic pain and psychopathology: research findings and theoretical considerations. Psychosomatic Medicine, 2002; 64(5): 773-86
  20. McWilliams, L.A., Cox, B.J., Enns, M.W., 2003. Mood and anxiety disorders associated with chronic pain: an examination in a nationally representative sample. Pain, 106(1-2): 127-133
  21. Anon., 2014. Cognitive and Behavioural Therapies [Online]. Available at:http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/behavioural.html#cognitivetherapy (Accessed 5th January 2014)
  22. Beck Institute for Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 2004. Cognitive Therapy (Online). Available at: http://www.beckinstituteblog.org/cognitive-behavioral-therapy/ (Accessed 8th January 2014)
  23. ABCT – Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, 2014. What is Cognitive Behaviour Therapy? [Online] Available at: http://www.abct.org/Public/?m=mPublicfa=WhatIsCBTpublic (Accessed 8th January 2014)
  24. 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Turner, J.A., Jensen, M.P., 1993. Efficacy of cognitive therapy for chronic low back pain. Pain, 52: 169–77
  25. Hunot, V., Moore, T.H.M., Caldwell, D.M., Furukawa, T.A., Davies, P., Jones, H., Honyashiki, M., Chen, P., Lewis, G., Churchill, R., 2013. Third wave' cognitive and behavioural therapies versus other psychological therapies for depression. The Cochrane Library, [online] Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008704.pub2[Accessed 10 Jan 2014]
  26. 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Henschke, N., Ostelo, R.W.J.G., van Tulder, M.W., Vlaeyen, J.W.S., Morley, S., Assendelft, W.J.J., Main, C.J., 2010. Behavioural treatment for chronic low-back pain, (Review) The Cochrane Library [online],fckLRAvailable at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002014.pub3/pdf/standard. [Accessed 9th Jan 2014]fckLRJacobsen, E., 1929. Progressive relaxation. University of Chicago Press: Oxford, England.
  27. 28.0 28.1 Shinohara, K., Honyashiki, M., Imai, H., Hunot, V., Caldwell D.M., Davies, P., Moore T.H.M., Furukawa, T.A., Churchill, R., 2013. Behavioural therapies versus other psychological therapies for depression (Review). The Cochrane Library [online]. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008696.pub2/pdf/standard. [Accessed 9th Jan 2014]
  28. The Big Bang Theory, 2012. Operant Conditioning. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mt4N9GSBoMI[last accessed 15/01/14]
  29. Thieme, K., Turk, D.C., Flor, H., 2007. Responder Criteria for Operant and Cognitive – Behavioral Treatment of Fibromyalgia Syndrome. The Cochrane Library [online]. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.22778/pdf. [Accessed 10/01/14]
  30. Gentry, W.D., Bernal, G.A.A., 1977. Chronic pain. Behavioral Approaches to Medical Treatment
  31. 32.0 32.1 Turk, D.C., Flor, H., 1984. Etiological theories and treatments for chronic back pain. Psychological models and interventions. Pain, 19: 209–33
  32. Vlaeyen, J.W.S., Haazen, I.W.C., Schuerman, J.A., Kole-Snijders, A.M.J., van Eek H., 1995. Behavioural rehabilitation of chronic low back pain: comparison of an operant treatment, an operant-cognitive treatment and an operant-respondent treatment. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34: 95-118
  33. Jacobsen, E., 1929. Progressive relaxation. University of Chicago Press: Oxford, England.
  34. Öst, L.G., 1987. Applied relaxation: description of a coping technique and review of controlled studies. Behaviour research and therapy, 25(5): 397-409
  35. 36.0 36.1 Nouwen, A., 1983. EMG biofeedback used to reduce standing levels of paraspinal muscle tension in chronic low back pain. Pain, 17(4): 353-60
  36. 37.0 37.1 Stuckey, S.J., Jacobs, A., Goldfarb, J., 1986. EMG biofeedback training, relaxation training, and placebo for the relief of chronic back pain. Percept Motor Skills, 63: 1023–36
  37. 38.0 38.1 Turner, J.A., 1982. Comparison of group progressive-relaxation training and cognitive-behavioral group therapy for chronic low back pain. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50(5): 757-765
  38. Bush, C., Ditto, B., Feuerstein, M., 1985. A controlled evaluation of paraspinal EMG biofeedback in the treatment of chronic low back pain. Health Psychology, 4:307–21.
  39. Newton-John, T.R., Spence, S.H., Schotte, D., 1995. Cognitive behavioural therapy versus EMG biofeedback in the treatment of chronic low back pain. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33: 691–7
  40. McCauley JD, Thelen MH, Frank RG, Willard RR, Callen KE. Hypnosis compared to relaxation in the outpatient management of chronic low back pain. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1983; 64(11): 548-52
  41. Magnusson, M.L., Chow, D.H., Diamandopoulos, Z., Pope, M.H. (2008) Motor control learning in chronic low back pain. Spine 33(16) 532-8
  42. Nicholas, M.K., Wilson, P.H., Goyen, J., 1991. Operant-behavioural and cognitive-behavioural treatment for chronic low back pain. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29: 225–238
  43. 44.0 44.1 Marienke van Middelkoop, Sidney M. Rubinstein, Ton Kuijpers, Arianne P. Verhagen, Raymond Ostelo, Bart W. Koes, Maurits W. van Tulder, 2011. A systematic review on the effectiveness of physical and rehabilitation interventions for chronic non-specific low back pain. European Spine Journal, 20: 19–39