Supraspinatus Tendinopathy

Search strategy[edit | edit source]

Databases used: Pubmed
Keywords used: supraspinatus tendinopathy, supraspinatus tendonitis, supraspinatus tendinitis, shoulder pain, epidemiology, impingement, upper arm sports


Definition/Description 
Definition.png
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For information about tendinopathy, see http://www.physio-pedia.com/Tendinopathy


Supraspinatus tendinopathy is a common and disabling condition that becomes more prevalent after middle age (6,7) and is a common cause of pain in the shoulder (26, 27). A predisposing factor is resistive overuse.[1]

The supraspinatus tendon of the rotator cuff is involved and affected tendons[2][3] (28) of the musculoskeletal system and becomes degenerated, most often as a result of repetitive stresses and overloading during sports or occupational activities (29).
The tendon of the supraspinatus commonly impinges under the acromion as it passes between the acromion and the humeral head. This mechanism is multifactorial (see below).
 

Clinical Relevant Anatomy[edit | edit source]

The supraspinatus muscle is of the greatest practical importance in the rotator cuff (30), derives its innervation from the suprascapular nerve (31) and stabilises the schoulder, exorotates and helps abduct (lift up sideways) the arm, by initiating the abduction of the humerus on the scapula (30). For more information about the function of the musculus supraspinatis in the rotator cuff, see http://www.physio-pedia.com/Rotator_Cuff
Any friction between the tendon and the acromion is normally reduced by the subacromial bursa.

For origo en insertion of the musculus supraspinatus, see also http://www.physio-pedia.com/Rotator_Cuff
The anterior margin of the supraspinatus is defined by the posterior edge of the rotator interval that separates the supraspinatus from the rolled superior border of the subscapularis. The posterior margin of the supraspinatus is marked by the extension of the raphe between supraspinatus and infraspinatus around the scapular spine. The anterior portion of the supraspinatus is composed of a long and thick tendinous component whereas the posterior portion has been shown to be short and thin (31).
An anatomic dissection study of the supraspinatus footprint found that the mean anterior to posterior dimension of the supraspinatus tendon was 25 mm, with a mean medial to lateral thickness of the footprint of 12 mm - the mean distance from the cartilage to the supraspinatus footprint was 1.5 mm at midtendon (32).

The supraspinatus and infraspinatus tendons fuse 1.5 cm proximal to their insertions (33). Collagen is the major matrix protein of supraspinatus tendons, consisting of > 95% type I collagen, with
lesser amounts of other collagens including collagen type III (35, 36).
The anatomy of the supraspinatus’s insertion is of key relevance in terms of its extracellular matrix composition and has been categorised into four transition zones (34). The first zone is proper tendon, made up of largely type I collagen and small amounts of decorin. The second zone is fibrocartilage and consists of largely types II and III collagen, with small amounts of types I, IX and X collagen. The third zone is mineralised fibrocartilage and consists of type II collagen, with significant amounts of type X collagen and aggrecan. The fourth zone is bone and is largely type I collagen with a high mineral content. This effective bone-tendon attachment is achieved through a functional grading in mineral content and collagen fibre orientation. The supraspinatus enthesis is a highly specialised in homogeneous structure that is subjected to both tensile and compressive forces (33).

Epidemiology/Etiology[edit | edit source]

The mean age of onset of this complication is in the sixth decade (age 50 to 59), and it is more frequent in diabetic patients[1]. It is also a common cause of shoulder pain in athletes whose sports involve throwing and overhead motions[2].

The causes of supraspinatus tendinitis can be primary impingement, which is a result of increased subacromial loading, and secondary impingement, which is a result of rotator cuff overload and muscle imbalance[4]. Figure 1 gives a view on the different extrinsic and intrinsic factors

Supraspinatusfoto1.jpg

Figure 1: The causes of supraspinatus tendonitis: extrinsic and intrinsic factors
(39)

Characteristics/Clinical presentation[edit | edit source]

Patients present with progressive subdeltoid aching that is aggravated by abduction, elevation, or sustained overhead activity. They feel also tenderness and a burning sensation in their shoulder (29). The pain may radiate to the lateral upper arm or may be located in the top and front of the shoulder. It typically becomes worse with overhead activity. Initially, the pain is felt during activities only, but eventually may occur at rest (29).

One has to think of supraspinatus tendinopthy when the patient says:
• Pain increases with reaching (29).
• Pain is felt after frequent repetitive activity at, or above shoulder (37).
• Patient feels weakness of resisted abduction and forward flexion, especially with pushing and overhead movements (29).
• Patient has difficulty sleeping at night due to pain, especially when lying on the affected shoulder, and with an inability to sleep (29).
• Patient has difficulties with simple movements, such as brushing hair, putting on a shirt or jacket, or reaching the arm above shoulder height (29).
• Patient has a limited range of motion in the shoulder (29).
• Patient had a former shoulder trauma (29).

Figure 2: painfull arc test
(39)
The shoulder may be warm and there may be fullness anterolaterally (29). Further, there is a painfull arc between 70° and 120° of abduction (29) (Figure 2).

So supraspinatus tendinitis is usually consistent with anterior instability causing posterior tightness. The problems that patient with Supraspinatus Tendinitis complain off, are pain, inflammation, decreased ROM, strength, and functional activity (1).



Differential DiagnosisCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
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In general, the causes of an acute painful shoulder can be classified into different categories, according to the prevailing pathoanatomy. These include

- Acromioclavicular Joint Injury (4)
- Bicipital Tendonitis (4)
- Brachial Plexus Injury (4)
- Cervical Disc Injuries (4)
- Cervical Discogenic Pain Syndrome (4)
- Cervical Radiculopathy (4)
- Cervical Spine Sprain/Strain Injuries (4)
- Clavicular Injuries (4)
- Contusions (4)
- Degenerative causes like rotator cuff tear, cervical spine radiculopathy and osteoarthritic glenohumeral joint (10)
- Infraspinatus Syndrome (4)
- Infective causes like acute pyogenic arthritis and osteomyelitis (10)
- Inflammatory causes like gouty arthritis, adhesive capsulitis or frozen shoulder and calcific tendonitis (10)
- Myofascial Pain in Athletes (4)
- Neoplastic causes like tumor metastasis (10)
- Shoulder Dislocation (4)
- Subacromial impingement (4)
- Superior Labrum Lesions (4)
- Swimmer's Shoulder (4)
- Traumatic fractures and dislocations (10)
More probing investigations can narrow down the differential diagnoses, which could include:
blood for white cell counts, search for abnormal blood biochemistry and inflammatory markers, as well as radionuclide imaging and MRI.

For more information about MRI, see http://www.physio-pedia.com/MRI_Scans

The MRI findings of rotator cuff tendinopathy are characterised by thickened inhomogeneous rotator cuff tendon with increased signal intensity on all pulse sequences (14). Fluid intensity filling an incomplete gap in the tendon on fat suppressed T2-weighted sequences changes are seen on MRI for partial-thickness tears (15). On MRI, an area of high signal intensity on all pulse sequences outlines complete disruption of the tendon (16).

Outcome Measures[edit | edit source]

Diagnosis is usually clinical, but imaging can be useful. Shoulder x-rays can reveal calcifications in rotator cuff tendons and in the bursaCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title. In longstanding cases, there may be degenerative changes, such as cystic/sclerotic changes at the greater tuberosity and decreased humeral head-acromion distance, secondary to upward migration of the humeral headCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title. In acute calcific tendinitis, calcifications may be irregular, fluffy and ill-defined. Dynamic ultrasound can demonstrate thickening of the subacromial bursa and impingement during abduction. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), rather than computed tomography (CT), is the preferred modality, since it produces more detailed soft-tissue imagesCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title.

Examination[edit | edit source]

The anamnesis often reveals that, in case of a calcification, due to a trauma, pain emerges later on, after a few hours.
The physical examination consist of taking the fever, looking for external wounds or bruises over the affected shoulder and checking the skin temperature. Further, the examinator will palpate in the area of the tendinous insertion of the supraspinatus muscle for checking tenderness and pain. Both passive and active movements will be performed (10).
Specific questionnaires can be used: Simple Shoulder Test (SST), Oxford Shoulder Score (OSS).
With clinical examination, other causes of shoulder pain should be excluded. So the neck, shoulder and chest wall have to be examined (Figure 3).

Supraspinatusfoto3.jpg

Figure 3: The neck, shoulder and chest wall have to be examined, so that other causes of shoulder pain should be excluded.
(Caroline, Adebajo, Hay & Carr, 2005)


The shoulders are inspected for symmetry, localized swelling and muscle atrophy. There may be tenderness below the acromion and over the greater tuberosity. Internal rotation of the shoulder can facilitate palpation of the supraspinatus insertion on the greater tuberosity. The most important clinical maneuvers are as follows[1]:
• Painful arc[4] (see figure 2)

Testings:
• Neer’s sign (http://www.physio-pedia.com/Neers_Test)
• Hawkin’s sign (http://www.physio-pedia.com/Hawkins_/_Kennedy_Test)
• Supraspinatus challenge test = “The Empty Beer Can” sign = Job ‘s test (http://www.physio-pedia.com/Empty_Can_Test)
• Drop arm test (http://www.physio-pedia.com/Drop_Arm_Test)
• Impingement test

Tests.png

                      Neer's test                                               Hawkin's sign                                                        Empty Can sign

If sonografy is done, the standard method for sonographic evaluation of the supraspinatus tendon requires the arm behind the back (Crass position) or hand on the back pocket (modified Crass position) (23). Crass et al. (24) described scanning the shoulder in extension and internal rotation, achieved by placing the patient’s hand behind the back.

Figure 4

Supraspinatusfoto4.png
Close-up view of the calcified lesion (11)
Yet diagnosis is usually clinical, but imaging can be useful. Shoulder x-rays can reveal calcifications in rotator cuff tendons and in the bursa (1,5) (Figure 4). In longstanding cases, there may be degenerative changes, such as cystic/sclerotic changes at the greater tuberosity and decreased humeral head-acromion distance, secondary to upward migration of the humeral head (6). In acute calcific tendinitis, calcifications may be irregular, fluffy and ill-defined. Dynamic ultrasound can demonstrate thickening of the subacromial bursa and impingement during abduction. Also sonografy and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be done (18).
Supraspinatus tendinosis can be graded using a modified 4-point scale from 0 to 3 based on previous studies (13, 16, 17, 18). Diagnosis is based on the appearance of the rotator cuff tendons (grading system) and the presence or absence of signs denoting involvement of the subacromial bursa and subacromial–subdeltoid plane (13, 18).

Medical Management[edit | edit source]

The treatment used to manage a supraspinatus tendonitis depends on the etiology of the pathology. At first a conservative treatment is preferred. This treatment involves physical therapy, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), ice treatments and resting. (41) Corticoid injections can also be used additional to physical therapy(42). A surgical intervention can be a solution if there is no improvement after 3-6 months of conservative treatment. (47)

NSAIDs may be the first choice for mild to moderate symptoms, if there are no contraindications to these agents[2]. A short term use (7-14 days) of NSAIDs is useful to relieve the pain associated with a tendinitis. However, there is little evidence supporting a long term course of NSAIDs. (40)
Moderate to severe symptoms may require a local subacromial corticosteroid injection. For more information about corticosteroid injections, see http://www.physio-pedia.com/Therapeutic_Corticosteroid_Injection

The major indications for surgery are ongoing pain, loss of function[1], failure to respond to conservative therapy for 3 months or evidence of an acute tear in a younger patient.(44) Surgical approaches include calcium deposit resection, with or without subacromial decompression, bursal resectionA and acromioplastyB, using either arthroscopic or open methods. It’s also possible to split off the coraco-acromial ligament to enlarge the space between acromion and humerus. This can cause instability, but we can compensate it with some training of the rotator cuff. [1] With physical therapy it takes patients up to 4 months to recover. The goal of a surgery is to obtain pain relief, increased range of motion and increased power. (44)
ABursal resection: Removement of the subacromial bursa.
BAcromioplasty: Generally, it implies removal of a small piece of the surface of the acromion that is in contact with a tendon causing, by friction, damage to the latter tissue.

Physical Therapy Management[edit | edit source]

The main goal in the acute phase (initial phase) is to alleviate pain, inflammation, prevent aggravation of pain, reduce muscle wasting and normalize the arthrokinematics of the shoulder girdle. A period of rest should be considered in order to avoid further aggravation and shoulder discomfort. 

Passive modalities should be considered in order to avoid painful aggravation. Modalities such as ultrasound, cryotherapy and electrical muscle stimulation can provide temperory relief in acute phase. Strengthening exercises such as isometric exercises should be considered in order to work out the shoulder girdle musculatures. Proper home exercise programs should also be taught in conjuction with proper ergonomics. 

The management of a supraspinatus tendonitis consists of different progressive exercises. There are three phases of treatment: Immobilization, passive/assisted range of motion, progressive resistance exercises. (45)

Supraspinatus7.png


Early management includes avoidance of repetitive movements that aggravate the pain.  Patients should be informed about pain provoking postures and movements. Cryotherapy, soft tissue techniques and wearing a sling/taping are some other techniques to relieve pain.(45) Gentle range-of-motion exercises, such as Codman’s classic pendulum exercises, maintain range of motion and prevent development of adhesive capsulitisCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title. (Figure 6)[1][4]. Once pain has been reduced,joint mobilisations, massages, muscle stretches, active-assisted and active exercises are needed to improve the ROM again. Active-assisted mobilisations can be done by the patient himself/herself by using an exercise bar. We can also use a rope and pulley, this way the unaffected arm is able to pull the affected one into anteversion (Figure 7). (45)  Strengthening exercises should work on the external rotators, internal rotators, biceps, deltoid, and scapular stabilizersCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title.

Strengthening these muscles will keep the shoulder joint more stable and prevent further injuries. Eccentric exercises will also be more effective than concentric exercises.(46)


I.E.:
• Sidelying external rotation with dumbbell against gravity
• Prone horizontal abduction with dumbbell against gravity
• Prone anteflexion in the plane of the scapula
• Prone row with external rotation
• External rotation with Thera-tubing (standing position)
• Horizontal abduction with Thera-tubing (standing position)
• Rows with Thera-tubing (standing position)
• Elevation in the plane of the scapula (standing position)

Scapula settings(47)
• Scapular protraction and retraction(47)


Joint mobilization may be included with inferior, anterior, and posterior glides in the scapular planeCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title.
Stretching exercises should be done by repeating the exercise 3 times and holding the stretch each time for 30 seconds.
Examples of the stretches for home exercise program are (Figure 7):


Oefentherapie.png


Neuromuscular control exercises also may be initiatedCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title. PNF patterns will increase strength in rotator cuff muscles and increase the stability of the shoulder. We can use four different patterns.
Modalities that also may be used as an adjunct include cryotherapy, hyperthermiaCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and ultrasoundCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title. Intensive ultrasound therapy has been shown to increase calcium resorption, but this requires frequent treatment that may not always be practicalCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title.


Key component of the treatment program - Friction Massage


Light to deep transverse friction massage is given over the tendon.

The patient sits comfortably on a chair, and the arm is put in a neutral or somewhat extended position with the lower arm supported.

The therapist sits at the patient's side.
A position of neutral or slight humeral extension brings the tendon forward into a position in which the site of the lesion is easily accessible to the fingertips. (see Fig.).

The therapist identifies the site of the supraspinatus tendon lying between the greater tubercle of the humerus and the acromion process. It is essential that the tendon be accurately located by knowledge of anatomy; it cannot be distinguished by palpation.
The pad of the therapist's middle finger, reinforced by the index finger (or vice versa), is placed directly over the site of the lesion, which is always just proximal to the tendon insertion on the greater tubercle. The thumb is used to stabilize the arm.

Massage of the supraspinatus muscle combined with joint movement; therapy technique.
a, Starting position. b, End position.
• Patient's starting position: lying on the left side, arm abducted.
• Therapist's starting position: standing, in front of the patient (Fig. Zahnd and Miihlemann 1998).

Friction massage for supraspinatus tendinitis.png


The therapist applies friction in a direction perpendicular to the normal orientation of the tendon, using the thumb both as fulcrum and to maintain pressure. The thumb and fingers of the opposite hand support and gather the skin over the shoulder to avoid friction between the massaging finger and skin.

This is the most valuable treatment in the management of supraspinatus tendinitis and is a key component of the treatment program. A similar technique is used for the other tendons of the rotator cuff.

Self-exercise

Self Exercise.png

• Patient's starting position: sitting, arm abducted to a position before symptoms appear, contact with three finger tips of the left hand in the supraspinous fossa (a).
• Movement: pressure into the supraspinous fossa, active adduction of the right glenohumeral joint, then releasing the pressure into the supraspinous fossa, and back to the starting position (b).

Patients suffering from non-calicfying supraspinatus tendinopathy may benefit from low energy extracorporeal shock wave therapy, at least in short-termCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title.
At the end of the therapy you should initiate plyometric and sports-specific exercises.
Patient education is again reemphasized, maintaining proper mechanics, strength, and flexibility, and having a good understanding of the pathology. The patient should also show an understanding of a home exercise program with the proper warm-up and strengthening techniquesCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title.


Key Research
[edit | edit source]

Starr M, Kang H. Recognition and management of common forms tendinitis and bursitis. The Canadian Journal of CME. 2001; 155-163.


Clinical Bottom Line
[edit | edit source]

Supraspinatus tendinitis is a common source of shoulder pain in athletes that participate in overhead sports (handball, volleyball, tennis, baseball). This tendinitis is in most cases caused by an impingement of the supraspinatus tendon on the acromion as it passes between the acromion and the humeral head. Pain, and a decrease in range of motion, strength and functionality are the main complaints that accompany this injury and should be addressed in the physical therapy. There is enough evidence to prove that physical applications such as ultrasound , cryotherapy, hyperthermia, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and extracorporeal shock wave therapy have a beneficial effect on the recovery of supraspinatus tendinitis. But we have to remember that it is very important to use these methods as an adjunct to physical therapy (increasing ROM, strength training of the rotator cuff muscles and other shoulder stabilizers).


References
[edit | edit source]


1. Starr M, Kang H. Recognition and management of common forms tendinitis and bursitis. The Canadian Journal of CME. 2001; 155-163. (Evidence level: 3A)

2. Green et al. Systematic review of randomised controlled trials of interventions for painful shoulder: selection criteria, outcome assessment, and efficacy. British Medical Journal, volume 316. 1998 (Evidence level: 1A)

3. Erbenbichler et al. Ultrasound therapy for calcific tendinitis of the shoulder. The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 340, 1999 (Evidence level: 1B)

4. Smith et al. Painful shoulder syndromes: diagnosis and management, clinical reviews. Journal of General Internal Medicine (Volume 7:May/June), 1992 (Evidence level: 3A)

5. Galasso et al. Short-term outcomes of extracorporeal shock wave therapy for the treatment of chronic non-calcific tendinopathy of the supraspinatus: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2012 (Evidence level: 1B)

6. Chard M.D., Sattelle L.M., Hazlerman B.L. (1988). The long-term outcome of rotator cuff tendinitis – a review study. Br. J. Rheumatol 1988, 27:385-389.
 Level of evidence: 5

7. Milgrom C., Schaffler M., Gilbert S., van Holsbeeck M. (1995), Rotator-cuff changes in asymptomatic adults. The effect of age, hand dominance and gender. J. Bone. Joint Surg. Br., 77:296-298.
 Level of evidence: 3B

8. SENBURSAet al. The effectiveness of manual therapy in supraspinatus tendinopathy. Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc 2011;45(3):162-167 (Evidence level: 2B)

9. Giombini et al. Short-term effectiveness of hyperthermia for supraspinatus tendinopathy in athletes, A short-term randomized controlled study, The American Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol.34 No.8. 2006 (Evidence level: 1B)

10. Fong, C.M. (2011). Calcific tendonitis of the supraspinatus tendon in a 7-year old boy: diagnostic challenges. Hong Kong Medical Journal, 17, 414-416.
 Level of evidence: 3B

11. Fong, C.M. (2011). Calcific tendonitis of the supraspinatus tendon in a 7-year old boy: diagnostic challenges. [Photo]. Hong Kong Medical Journal, 17, 414-416.
 Level of evidence: 3B

12. Sein, M.L., Walton, J., Linklater, J., Harris, C., Dugal, T., Appleyard, R., Kirkbride, B., Kuah, D., Murrell, G.A.C. (2006). Reliability of MRI assessment of supraspinatus tendinopathy. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41 (9), 1-4.
 Level of evidence: 1B


13. Kneeland, B.J., Middleton, W.D., Carrera, G.F., et al. (1987). MR imaging of the shoulder: diagnosis of rotator cuff tears. American Journal of Roentgenology,149, 333–337.
 Level of evidence: 2B

14. Stoller, D.W., Tirman, P., Bredella, M.A., et al. (2004). Diagnostic imaging orthopaedics. 1st edn., Utah:AMIRSYS.
 Level of evidence: no information available

15. Hawkins, R.J., Hobeika, P.E. (1983). Impingement syndrome in the athletic shoulder. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 2, 391–405.
 Level of evidence: no information available

16. Farley, T.E., Neumann, C.H., Steinbach, L.S., et al. (1992). Full-thickness tears of the rotator cuff of the shoulder: diagnosis with MR imaging. American Journal of Roentgenololy,158, 347–351.
 Level of evidence: 2C

17. Neuman, C.H., Holt, R.G., Steinbach, L.S., et al. (1992). MR imaging of the shoulder: appearance of the supraspinatus tendon in asymptomatic volunteers. American Journal of Roentgenology,158,1281–1287.
 Level of evidence: 2C

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 Level of evidence: 1B

19. Fleiss, J.L. (1986). Reliability of measurement. The design and analysis of clinical experiments. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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20. Fleiss, J.L. (1986) Reliability in the clinical setting. American Physical Therapy Association, Section Newsletter, 24, 2–8.
 Level of evidence: no information available

21. Sein, M.L., Walton, J., Linklater, J., Harris, C., Dugal, T., Appleyard, R., Kirkbride, B., Kuah, D., Murrell, G.A.C. (2006). Reliability of MRI assessment of supraspinatus tendinopathy. [Photo]. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41 (9), 1-4.
 Level of evidence: 1B

22. Shah, N.P., Miller, T.T., Stock, H., Adler, R.S. (2012). Sonography of Supraspinatus Tendon Abnormalities in the Neutral Versus Crass and Modified Crass Positions. [Foto]. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine, 31, 1203-1208.
 Level of evidence: 2B

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 Level of evidence: 2B

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 Level of evidence: no information available

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 Level of evidence: 1B

36. Fu F.H., Harner C.D., Klein A.H. (1991), Shoulder impingement syndrome: a critical review. Clin. Orthop.;269:162-73.
 Level of evidence: 5

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 Level of evidence: no information available

28. T.J. Molloy, M.W. Kemp, Y. Wang, G.A.C. Murell (2006), Microarray analysis of the tendinopathic rat supraspinatus tendon: glutamate signalling and its potential role in tendon degeneration, J. Appl. Physiol. 101:702-709
 Level of evidence: 1B

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 Level of evidence: 2C

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 Level of evidence: no information available

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 Level of evidence: 3A

32. Ruotolo C., Fow J.E., Nottage W.M. (2004) The supraspinatus footprint: an anatomic study of the supraspinatus insertion. Arthroscopy, 20:246-9.
 Level of evidence: 3B

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 Level of evidence: 1A

34. Thomopoulos S., Genin G.M., Galatz L.M. (2010), The development and morphogenesis of the tendon-to-bone insertion: what development can teach us about healing. J Musculoskelet. Neuronal. Interact., 10:35-45.
 Level of evidence: 5

35. Ruud A. B, Johan M. T., Geja O., Brian L.H., Graham P.R. (1999), Lysylhydroxylation and non-reducible crosslinking of human supraspinatus tendon collagen: changes with age in chronic rotator cuff tendinitis, Ann. Rheum. Dis., 58:35-41.
 Level of evidence: 1B

36. Riley G.P., Harral R.L., Constant C.R., Chard M.D., Cawston T.E., Hazleman B.L. (1994), Tendon degeneration and chronic shoulder pain: changes in the collagen compostion of the human rotator cuff tendons in rotator cuff tendinitis. Ann. Rheum. Dis., 53:359-66.
 Level of evidence: 3B

37. Amiel D., Kleiner J.B., Biochemistry of tendon and ligament (1988). In: Nimni M.E., ed. Collagen. Biotechnology. Vol III. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 223-51.
 Level of evidence: no information available

38. Treatment of non-traumatic rotator cuff tears: A randomised controlled trial with one-year clinical results. J. Kukkinen, A Joukainen, L Lehtinen, K.T. Matilla, E.K.J. Tuominen, T. Kauko, V.Äärimaa: Bone Joint J 2014 ; 96-B:75-81.
 Level of evidence: 2A

39. MEDSCAPE : Author: Thomas M DeBerardino, MD; Chief Editor: Sherwin SW Ho, MD Supraspinatus Tendonitis Clinical Presentation, http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/93095-clinical%20# a0218 (consulted on April 14, 2014).
 Level of evidence: 1B

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 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 2A

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 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 3A

42. Louise Hasan, Aleisha Hill, Claire Maconochie. Supraspinatus tendinopathy.
Site: http://supraspinatustendinopathy.synthasite.com/references.php (consulted on April 14, 2014).
 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 3A

43. CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 74 • NUMBER 7 (2007) MICHAEL J. CODSI, MD., Department of Orthopaedics, The painful shoulder: When to inject and when to refer
 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 2A
44. Sports med Arthrosc Rehabil Ther Technol. Nicholas D Clement, Yuan X Nie, and Julie M McBirnie., (2012) Management of degenerative rotator cuff tears: a review and treatment strategy 4:48
 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 2A

45. Martin Jaeger, Frankie Leung, Wilson Li, (2011) Proximal humerus 11-C1.3 Nonoperative treatment
 Level of evidence:  Level of evidence: 5

46. Peterson M1, Butler S, Eriksson M, Svärdsudd K. (2014) A randomized controlled trial of eccentric vs. concentric graded exercise in chronic tennis elbow (lateral elbow tendinopathy).
 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 2B

47. AAOS, Rotator cuff and shoulder conditioning program.
http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/PDFs/Rehab_Shoulder_5.pdf (consulted on April 14, 2014).
 Level of evidence: Level of evidence: 5

48. JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 74 • NUMBER 7 MICHAEL J. CODSI, MD., (2007) Department of Orthopaedics, The painful shoulder: When to inject and when to refer [Foto] Cleveland clinic
 Level of evidence: 2A

49. Matsen FA III, Lippitt SB, Sidles JA, Harryman DT II. (1994) Practical evaluation and management of the shoulder. [Photo] Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, pp 46-49
 Level of evidence: No information available

50. Martin Jaeger, Frankie Leung, Wilson Li, (2011) Proximal humerus 11-C1.3 Nonoperative treatment [Photo]
 Level of evidence: 5