Female Athlete Triad

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Definition/Description[edit | edit source]

Female Athlete Triad is a syndrome that evolves from the interrelationships among energy availability, bone mineral density, and menstrual function. The clinical manifestations include eating disorders, functional hypothalamic amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. Not all clinical signs must be present to diagnose Female Athlete Triad.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title Female Athlete Triad commonly occurs in adolescent or highly competitive female athletes. This syndrome is most common in Adolescent athletes largely due to their skeletal immaturity and naturally low Bone Mineral Density (BMD) being more susceptible to physical and metabolic stressors. Along with health care providers, all coaching staff members of high level and high school women’s sports teams should be highly aware of signs of this disease in order to manage the health of their players.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title It is also recommended that all female athletes are screened for Female Athlete Triad on a yearly basis.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title Early signs of the Female Athlete Triad include weight changes, repeated fractures, and decreased energy.Longterm effects of Female Athlete Triad include low peak BMD, Osteoporosis, Thoughts of suicide during long term disease process, and kidney and liver dysfunction.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Triad-diagram.jpgCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Prevalence[edit | edit source]

Due to inconsistencies and limitations in criteria defining Female Athlete Triad, study methodology, and experimental design there is an evident discrepancy in the literature when determining the prevalence of the triad. The chances of all three conditions of the triad presenting simultaneously are low, ranging from 0% to 16%. The odds of two conditions presenting at the same time range from 3% to 27%. Generally, most common to just have one of the conditions present with the odds ranging from 16% to 60%.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title Since a diagnosis for Female Athlete Triad is possible without having all three components of the triad, it is possible for sedentary and normally active females to be diagnosed with the syndrome at rates that are only slightly less than competitive female athletes.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Characteristics/Clinical Presentation[edit | edit source]

  • Weight loss
  • Absent or irregular periods
  • Fatigue
  • Stress fractures
  • Restrictive dieting
  • Binge eating
  • Induced vomiting
  • Excessive exercise

Associated Co-morbidities[edit | edit source]

Due to the loss in bone mineral density the primary comorbidity associated with female athlete triad is osteoporosis. Female athlete triad generally occurs in the primary age range for storing and depositing calcium in the bones. Slowing or reversing this possess will result in the potential to increase the risk of fractures later in life even after resolving the issues leading to a diagnosis of female athlete triad.

Systemically low Bone MIneral Density, low blood estrogen level, and menstrual dysfunction has been linked to Endothelial Dysfunction in endurance athletes. Endothelial Dysfunction is directly related to the bodies ability to constrict or dilate blood vessels. If Endothelial Dysfunction is present (indicated by Brachial Artery flow-mediated dilation) the risk for Cardiovascular Events, poor blood flow mediation, and athrosclerotic disease are all increased significantly.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Medications[edit | edit source]

Antidepressants are often used to treat associated concomitant depression and anxiety disorders. They are also used following weight restoration for bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Research has show mixed results for improving BMD or restoring menstrual cycles when using hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or oral contraceptive pill (OCP). While BMD may not be improved by using OCP, it may help to reduce further loss in BMD in athletes under the age of 16.Young women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea should not use bisphosphonates that are approved for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis due to their unproven efficacy in women of childbearing age. Also since the medication tend to linger in the bones for many years they have the potential to cause harm to a developing fetus is the patient becomes pregnant later in life.Ovulation inducing agents such as clomiphene citrate and exogenous gonadotropins are indicated if the aim of therapy is to restore fertility.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title Nutritional therapy has the best evidence for successfully treating female athlete triad due to its ability to in increase energy availability.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Diagnostic Tests/Lab Tests/Lab Values[edit | edit source]

Athletes most commonly show signs of 1 or 2 components of Female Athlete Triad. If suspected due to pain, recurrent fractures, recurrent sprains, Low BMI (<85% expected weight), poor eating habits, or other, use the following questions to see if there is cause for concern.

Triad Table1.pngCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Triad Table2.pngCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Risk FactorsCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Non-Modifiable:

  • Female Gender
  • Age 12-19

Modifiable:

  • Early age sport specialization
  • Low BMI (Z-score less than or equal to -1)
  • Overtraining
  • Engaging in sports with endurance, aesthetic, and weight class components
  • Severe Dieting
  • Family Dysfunction
  • Abuse

Energy Availability (EA)

  •  Energy Intake should be at least 45 kcal/kg of fat-free mass (FFM)Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • < 30kcal/kg FFM disrupts bone mineralization and menstruationCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • 5 days or more of < 30kcal/kg decreases luteinizing hormone availability in the bodyCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Triggers for disordered eating may include: Prolonged dieting, weight fluctuations, changes in coaching, injury, and social attention to weight.

Bone Mineral Density
In women, about 90% of bone formation should be complete by 18 years oldCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title, with bone density peaking between 20-30 years old. Poor Bone Mineral density is correlated with being <85% expected weight for height and age. A Z-score at or below -1.0 is cause for concern. Long Distance Running is a highest risk sport for negatively impacting BMD
BMD Screenings such as for celiacs diseaseCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
Menstruation
Disorders in menstrual function can be as mild as anovulation and luteal dysfunction to Oligomenorrhea and Amenorrhea
Menstrual disturbances are common in all adolescents (~21%), but more common in adolescent athletes (~54%)Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

  • -Anovulation - ovaries do not release an oocyte and ovulation doesn’t occur. (few overt symptoms)
  • -Luteal Deficiency - low concentration of blood progesterone and or Luteal phase lasting less than 11 days (few overt symptoms)
  • -Oligomenorrhea - menstrual cycles lasting longer than 35 days
  • -primary Amenorrhea is the “absence of menarche by the age of 15 years.”Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • -secondary Amenorrhea is absence of menstruation for greater than or equal to 3 consecutive months after menarche

Etiology/Causes[edit | edit source]

Female Athlete Triad is thought to be caused by one or more of several factors.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
Low Energy Availability is thought to be the primary cause of Female Athlete Triad.

  • Energy Availability is the dietary energy left in the body after exercise is completed, or total dietary energy in (calories in) minus total exercise energy expended (calories out).Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title Low energy availability is not synonymous with disordered eating.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • Causes - Restricted Diet, Disordered Eating, Genetic absorption problem.

Overtraining is also a common factor in Female Athlete Triad.

  • Overtraining can be the trigger for the pathology because working your body past a reasonable training schedule prevents it from being able to heal from previous training sessions. This increases metabolic demands and releases stress-related hormones that affect blood flow and is severe cases absorption of nutrients. Overtraining may prevent appropriate musculoskeletal recovery, perpetuate high levels of blood cortisol, and negatively affect energy absorption. These factors over time can cause cortical thinning of bones, pathological weakening of muscles and ligaments, and disrupt normal metabolic cycles. Over time the excess stress hormone and physical demand degrade the bone density of the athlete.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • Overtraining is engaging in repetitive stressful activity (>7 Met) for more than 60 min 6 days/week.

Systemic Involvement[edit | edit source]

  • GI - low intake, atrophy, abnormal acid balance, and nutrient deficits
  • Cutaneous - without appropriate nutrients, the skin becomes brittle and takes longer to heal
  • Integumentary - laxed weak ligaments from poor recovery time and nutrition.
  • Musculoskeletal - inability to grow new muscle due to lack of resources and poor recovery time. Strength and endurance depletion from systemic catabolism.
  • CardioPulmonary and Circulatory - poor blood sugar, poor serum cholesterol and triglycerides, fragile balance of metabolites with decreased ability to compensate for imbalances due to poor storages. Reduced clotting factor. Increased incidence of endothelial dysfunction.
  • Endocrine - increased production of stress hormones, decreased ability to balance homeostatic control due to poor systemic condition from prolonged stress and absent nutrients.
  • Lymphatic and Immune - Immune system becomes fragile due to systemic stress.
  • Neurological - decreased attention span. possibly poor balance.
  • Reproductive System - Reproductive system shuts down (reduced blood flow, reduced metabolism, reduced hormone production) to maintain energy for vital functions.

Medical Management (current best evidence)[edit | edit source]

An interdisciplinary team necessary to manage female athlete triad.

  • Nutritionist - Energy imbalance is the corner-stone of Female Athlete Triad, the first treatment is to have a full nutritional assessment. Vitamins, Minerals, and Nutrition
  • Psychologist - there is often a psychological factor that drives disordered eating or over training. Athletes affected with eating disorders have a long-term increased risk of suicide.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • Primary Care Provider - Important for pharmaceutical management and regular physical check ups.

Energy Balance

  • Acute stages: restore or create sufficient nutrition balance for caloric needs.
  • Subacute/Chronic stages: If long term, get back to healthy weight then treat as acute

Training Balance

  • Acute stages: Make sure training is in appropriate proportion
  • Chronic stages: training may need to be modified to low impact exercise if the patient has suffered extensive disease process.

Bones
Focus medical treatment on fractures first, Grade down training to appropriate levels, then restore nutrition to approriate level.
If Z score is less than or equal to -1.0 - no high impact activity and increase Ca Vit D intake, fix any underlying hormonal issues. Z-score may not reach 1. Return to moderate volumes of high impact activity may take place.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
May have lower bone density in life after triad - may improve with resistance training and augmented Ca Vit D consumption.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Physical Therapy Management (current best evidence)[edit | edit source]

Once a physical therapist notices the signs and symptoms of female It is important that they get other health care professionals involved in the treatment of the patient. SInce physical therapist are educated to be experts of movement and the physiological response to exercise, it is imperative that they are involved in patient education and exercise prescription once the patient’s nutritional and energy levels are resolved.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive titleCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Differential Diagnosis[edit | edit source]

  • Primary Amenorrhea
  • Secondary Amenorrhea due to other factors listed aboveCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • Brittle Bone Disease
  • Secondary causes of low BMD (such as B12 Deficiency)
  • Thyroid DisordersCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • Parathyroid Disorders
  • Celiacs DiseaseCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title
  • Osteoporosis - inadequate accumulation of optimal BMD during childhood and adolescenceCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name cannot be a simple integer. Use a descriptive title

Case Reports/ Case Studies[edit | edit source]

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Resources
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Recent Related Research (from Pubmed)
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References
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Original Editor <a href="User:Aarti Sareen">Aarti Sareen</a>

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